Essentials of 

English Grammar 
Condensed 

for the 

X High or Preparatory School 

Gemmill 




With Classic Exercises for Analysis 
and Latin Appendix 




Class _JPEJj 

Book 

Copyright N° 



COPVRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Essentials of 

English Grammar Condensed 

for the 

High or Preparatory School 

A Basis for the Study of Higher English 
or Other Languages 



By Elsie (^ emmill, B. A. 

Author of 

"New Grammar Drill" 




"Labor Omnia Vincit'' 



Essex Press, Publishers 

Newark, N. J, 



TEiiii 
,G3? 



Copyright, 1919 
By Elsie Gemmile 



OCT 27 1919 
A536342 



Preface 

THERE has been a need for a great while in the 
High and Preparatory School of giving pupils, as 
they enter, special aid in the essentials of English 
Grammar to strengthen their foundation as they pursue 
the study of higher English as well as the study of other 
languages. 

This course has been very carefully prepared with the 
main purpose of surmounting any obstacles which might 
hamper either teacher or pupil at this particular period 
by way of presenting, in as concise though complete man- 
ner as possible, the parts most necessary to the pursuit 
of any language. A Latin Appendix is added here 
merely to show how often we meet expressions in the 
form of quotations, mottoes, derivatives, etc., and how 
we nearly speak the language most of the time. A great 
advantage will be found in using this book in conjunc- 
tion with other texts during any part of the school year, 
and it is hoped that by means of such a guide the old- 
time difficulties will be overcome and a new psychological 
role be developed in the form of mental alertness and 
enlightenment of self. 

The terminology will be found to agree largely with 
the new Grammatical Nomenclature which has been 
universally adopted. It might also be said that this book 
is a result of teaching for ten years in both public and 
private schools where golden experience aided in the 
development of this new idea. 

The exercises for analysis, taken from Aesop's Fables 
and Charles Dudley Warner's "In the Wilderness," 



should be especially helpful and should offer a test of the 
student's knowledge of rules and forms. 

The selections from Charles Dudley Warner are used 
by permission of and by special arrangement with 
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY, authorized pub- 
lishers of his work. 

The author wishes to thank those who have encour- 
aged her in writing this book and to express her deep 
appreciation to those who, by advice and suggestion, have 
assisted in making "Essentials of English Grammar Con- 
densed" a success. E. G. 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Chapter I.— The Sentence. 

Definition 9 

Subject and Predicate 9, 13 

The Simple Sentence 9, 13 

Complete subject and Complete predicate 9, 10 

Kinds of sentences •. 11, 12 

Compound subjects and Compound predicates 12, 13 

Compound Sentence 13, 14, 17 

Complex Sentence 13, IS, 17 

Compound Complex Sentence 15, 16 

Exercise as review 16, 17 

Chapter II. — Definitions of Parts of Speech. 

The Preposition 17, 18 

Nouns 18 

Pronouns _ 18 

Adjectives 18, 19 

Verbs 19, 20 

Adverbs 20 

Interjections 20 

Chapter III. — Nouns. 

Definition 21 

Gender 21, 22 

Number 22 

Regular formation of the plural 22 

Special rules 22, 23 

Irregular formation of the plural 24, 25 

Classification of nouns 25, 26 

Case 26, 27 

Declension of nouns 27, 28 

The Cases defined and illustrated 28-34 

Person 34, 35 

The Infinitive 35 

Exercise as review 35, 36, 37 

Chapter IV. — Pronouns. 

Definition 38 

Personal Pronouns 38 

Declension of the Personal Pronoun 38, 39 



PAGE. 

Reflexive Pronouns 39, 40 

Possessive Pronouns 40 

Declension of the Possessive Pronouns 40 

Adjective Pronouns 41 

Classification — Demonstrative and Indefinite Pronouns 41, 42 

Pronominal Adjectives 42, 43 

Rule for the agreement of pronouns 42 

Relative Pronouns 43, 44, 45 

Declension of the Relative Pronoun 43 

Declension of the Compound Relative Pronoun 45, 46 

Interrogative Pronouns 46 

Parsing the Noun and Pronoun 47, 48 

Chapter V.— Adjectives. 

Definition 48 

Kinds of adjectives 48, 49 

The Predicate Adjective 49 

The Articles 50 

Numeral Adjectives 51 

Cardinal and Ordinal Numeral Adjectives 51 

Comparison of adjectives 51, 52 

Irregular comparison of adjectives 53, 54 

Chapter VI. — Adverbs. 

Definition 55 

Kinds of adverbs 55, 56 

Relative Adverbs 56 

Interrogative Adverbs 56 

Comparison of adverbs 56, 57 

Irregular comparison of adverbs 57 

Chapter VII. — Verbs. 

Definition 58 

The Verb-Phrase 58 

Auxiliary Verbs 58 

The Transitive Verb ■ 59 

The Intransitive Verb 59, 60 

The Copulative Verbs 60 

Inflection of Verbs-Tense 60, 61 

Regular Verbs 61 



PAGE. 

Irregular Verbs 61 

Person and Number 61 

Rule for the agreement of the verb 61 

Inflection of verbs 62 

Impersonal Verbs 63 

Rules for the use of number 63, 64, 65 

The Future Tense 65 

Use of Shall and Will 65, 66, 67 

Use of Should and Would 67, 68, 69 

Complete or Perfect Tenses 69, 70 

Voice of Verbs 70 

Mood of Verbs 70, 71, 72 

The Participle 72, 73 

Verbal Nouns 74 

The Infinitive 74, 75 

Uses of the Infinitive 75, 76 

Complementary Infinitive 76 

The Conjugation of a Verb 76 

Conjugation of the Verb, TO BE 76, 77, 78 

Conjugation of the Verb, HEAR 78-83 

Progressive Conjugation 83 

Synopsis of the Irregular Verb, FIND 83, 84, 85 

Principal Parts o.f Verbs 85, 86 

Principal Parts of Regular, and Irregular Verbs 86-89 

Formation of the past tense of an Irregular Verb 89, 90 

Uses of the Passive Voice 90-92 

The Subjunctive Mood 92, 93 

Modal Auxiliaries 93 

The Potential Mood 94, 95 

Parsing the Verb 96 

Chapter VIII. — Clauses. 

Definition 96 

Classification of clauses 96-99 

Infinitive Clauses 99, 100 

Kinds of Subordinate Clauses 100-110 

Kinds of Conditions 103-106 

Clauses of Comparison 106 

Indirect Discourse 106-109 

Direct and Indirect Questions 109, 110 



PAGE. 

Chapter IX.— Phrases. 

Definition 1 1 1 

Classification of Phrases Ill, 112, 113 

Chapter X— Special Constructions. 

Use of Would and Should in Subordinate Clauses....ll3, 114, 115 

The Subjunction after statements of Volition 115 

Independent Elements in the sentence 115, 116 

Words which have several constructions 116, 117 

Exercise in the use of words 117 

Verbal Noun and Participle 117, 118 

Chapter XI. — Analysis. 

Definition 118 

Syntax _ 118 

How to analyze a simple sentence 118 

How to analyze a compound sentence 118 

How to analyze a complex sentence 118 

How to analyze a compound complex sentence 118 

Exercises for analysis 119 

"Aesop's Fables." 

The Lion and the Mouse 119 

The Wolf and the Lamb 119, 120 

The Fox and the Lion 120 

The Hare and the Tortoise 120, 121 

The Fox Without a Tail 121 

The Bull and the Goat 121, 122 

The Wolf and the Horse 122 

Exercises for analysis. 

"In the Wilderness." (Charles Dudley Warner.) 

Lost in the Woods : 122, 123, 124 

A Fight with a Trout 124, 125 

A Wilderness Romance 125, 126 

Appendix 127 

Foreword 127 

Latin Words— English Derivatives 128-139 

Latin quotations, mottoes and phrases 140-144 



CHAPTER I. 

The Sentence. 

1. A Group of Words expressing a complete thought 
is called a Sentence. Every sentence to be complete 
must have a subject and a predicate. The subject de- 
notes the Person, Place or Thing spoken of ; the predi- 
cate expresses the Action or State of the subject. 

A Simple sentence contains but one subject and but 
one predicate. A simple sentence may contain but tzvo 
words, i. e., subject and predicate. Examples: 
Dogs bark. 
Soldiers drill. 
Alice paints. 

(These are the simplest forms of sentences.) 

The subjects in these sentences are simple subjects and 
the predicates are simple predicates. 

Sometimes, however, the simple subject and the 
simple predicate have other words to describe or to com- 
plete their meaning, as : 

The large black dogs / bark when they see their 
master. 

The new soldiers / drill a good part of the day. 

My little pupil, Alice, / paints the best of all. 

In each of these sentences, the main idea, expressed by 
the simple subject and the simple predicate, is made 
more definite and complete by supplementing these 
words, which, when taken with the simple subject and 
simple predicate form the Complete Subject and the 
Complete Predicate. The mark (/) shows the divi- 
sion between complete subject and complete predicate. 



10 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

It may be noted that in these last sentences, the mean- 
ing is not destroyed by the removal of these added words. 

There are cases, however, where added words are 
essential to complete the main idea. Examples: The 
sudden outbreak of the Great War in 1914, / resulted in 
a world-wide conflict. 

A state of unrest / has developed in the city. 

Either side of the shore-line / was a continuous bar 
of sand. In the first sentence, the simple subject, "out- 
break," with the simple predicate, "resulted," does not 
make a complete thought ; the other words are therefore 
added to form the complete subject and complete predi- 
cate. In the second sentence, "state has developed," con- 
veys an idea but it is vague without the aid of the other 
zvords. In the last sentence, "side was," would mean 
nothing unless we formed a complete subject and com- 
plete predicate. 

2. EXERCISE. 

Write a complete thought containing, (1), two words, 
(2), containing more than two words. Name the simple 
subjects and simple predicates. Now write a sentence 
containing a complete subject and a complete predicate. 
Reduce this to its simple subject and simple predicate 
and see if a complete thought is expressed. If your sen- 
tence thus reduced is not entirely destroyed, change the 
wording so that it will be; if, on the other hand, your 
sentence is destroyed, rewrite it so that it will not be, etc. 

Write a sentence containing a simple subject and a 
complete predicate; write a sentence containing a com- 
plete subject and a simple predicate. 



The Sentence 11 



3. KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

A Simple Declarative sentence states something as 
a fact. 

Examples : The clock struck eleven. 

We sail for France to-morrow. 
The Home Fires are burning. 
An Imperative sentence expresses a command or 
Examples : Are the boys coming home soon? 
Did you enjoy your trip? 
What is the time? 
An Imperative sentence expresses a command or 
request. 

Examples: Pronounce the word twice. 
Shut the door. 
Forward march ! 
The subject of these sentences is "y° u " understood. 
The subject is sometimes expressed for the sake of 
emphasis. 

You pronounce the word twice; You shut the door; 
You forward march, etc. 

An Exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief 
or some other emotion. 

Examples : How foggy it is at sea to-day ! 
What a magnificent view this is ! 
Look ! the car has jumped the track ! 

AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE sentences. 
Affirmative Declarative sentence : 
I leave for the West to-morrow. 
Negative Declarative sentence : 

I do not leave for the West to-morrow. 



12 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Interrogative sentence : 

Were you sorry to leave the army? 
Interrogative sentence written negatively: 
Were you not sorry to leave the army? 
(A sentence written in this form may have an affirm- 
ative meaning, i. e., You were sorry to leave the army, or, 
it may mean, You were not sorry to leave the army. 
The first interpretation, however, is the more reasonable.) 

Affirmative Imperative Sentence. 
Hurry home. 
Negative Imperative: 
Do not hurry home. 
Note. — Original examples may be given here for the 
sake of further drill. 

4. COMPOUND SUBJECTS and COMPOUND 
PREDICATES. 

A Compound Subject or a Compound Predicate con- 
sists of two or more simple subjects or simple predicates 
joined by means of Conjunctions. 

(Definition.) A Conjunction is a simple connec- 
tive between zvords, groups of words or independent 
statements. 

Examples of compound subject and compound predi- 
cate: 

Harry and Ben / are here for the summer. 
The soldiers and sailors / are being entertained. 
Men, women and children / were rushing from 

their homes. 
She / plays tennis and drives her car all the 
time. 



The Sentence 13 



The waves / were dashing high and were break- 
ing against the rocks. 

In the first sentence, the simple subjects, "Harry" 
and "Ben" are joined by the conjunction, "and," to form 
a compound subject. 

In the second sentence, "soldiers" and "sailors" are 
joined in the same manner. 

In the third sentence, three simple subjects are joined 
to make a compound subject. 

In the fourth sentence, "plays" and "drives" form a 
compound predicate and, in the last, "were dashing" and 
"were breaking" is the compound predicate. 

A sentence may have a compound subject and a com- 
pound predicate, as : The captain and his men / went 
over the top and drove the enemy back. 

5. EXERCISE : Think a sentence containing a com- 
pound subject; state it; write it and tell how it is 
formed. 

Do the same for a sentence containing a compound 
predicate. Then repeat this exercise by giving a sentence 
containing both compound subject and compound predi- 
cate. 

Give three other original examples of each and work 
them out as before. 

6. COMPOUND and COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

Sentences are Simple, Compound or Complex. 

A Simple sentence contains but one subject and but 
one predicate. 

The Simple subject is the one word in the sentence 
that denotes the Person, Place or Thing spoken of. 



14 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



The Simple predicate expresses the action or state 
of the subject. It may consist of one or more than one. 
word. 

Example : Jack swims; Jack is swimming; Jack has 
been swimming. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, of a sim- 
ple sentence may be complete. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, of a simple 
sentence may be compound. 

7. A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or 
more independent (co-ordinate) clauses. 

Definition : A Clause is a group of words in a sen- 
tence that contains a subject and a predicate. A sen- 
tence may have several clauses. When two or more 
clauses in a sentence are grammatically independent, they 
are said to be co-ordinate, i. e., of the same order or 
rank, and the sentence is then compound. 

Example : The shells burst / and / the guns roared. 
This is a Compound sentence because it contains two 
clauses, each of which expresses a complete thought inde- 
pendent in itself, i. e., the first statement does not depend 
upon the second for its meaning. The Conjunction, 
"and," connects the two clauses but is not a part of 
either. It is called a Co-ordinate conjunction because it 
connects two independent statements which are of the 
same rank. When two or more sentences are joined in 
this manner, it is for the purpose of showing some rela- 
tion between the two thoughts. 

Examples : The band was playing America / and / 
the troops were saluting the Flag. 



The Sentence 15 



The heat is intense / but / the men are 

working. 
The horses started to gallop / and / we 

all held our breath. 

8. A COMPLEX SENTENCE consists of two or 
more clauses one of which is independent, the other de- 
pendent, (Subordinate), i. e., lower in order or rank. 

Example: She is willing to speak / if / you attend 
the meeting. The main clause in this sentence is: She 
is willing to speak, it is entirely independent. The other 
clause : if you attend the meeting, depends upon the 
first statement for its meaning and could not stand alone. 
It is, therefore, termed subordinate, or, lower in rank 
in the sentence. 

A sentence of this structure is said to be Complex. 

The conjunction if connects the two clauses and is 
called a subordinate conjunction because it connects a 
subordinate clause with the clause upon which it depends 
for its meaning. 

Other Examples of Complex Sentences. 

The men did not retreat / though / they saw the 
danger. 

I will explain / as / you do not understand. 

9. A COMPOUND COMPLEX sentence is one in 
which one or more of the co-ordinate clauses is Complex. 

Example: The men did not retreat though they saw 
the danger / and / the Captain cheered his company 
because they showed such valor. These complex sen- 
tences are joined to form one compound sentence. The 
sentence is compound for both of its clauses are co- 



16 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

ordinate : The men did not retreat though they saw the 
danger; the Captain cheered his company because they 
showed such valor. 

A Complex sentence and a Simple sentence may be 
joined to form a compound sentence, as, — The men did 
not retreat though they saw the danger / and / the Cap- 
tain cheered his company. The first sentence is Complex 
and second is Simple. 

10. EXERCISE: 

Write a Simple sentence containing only a simple sub- 
ject and a simple predicate. 

Write a Simple sentence containing a complete sub- 
ject and a complete predicate. 

Write a Simple sentence containing a simple subject 
and a complete predicate. 

Write a Simple sentence containing a complete subject 
and a simple predicate. 

Write an affirmative declarative sentence. 

Write a negative declarative sentence. 

Write an imperative sentence. 

Write the same negatively. 

Write each of these imperative sentences, first, with 
subject understood, secondly, with subject expressed. 

Write an interrogative sentence. 

Write it negatively and see if there might be tzvo 
meanings. Write another sentence of this kind and 
explain the interpretations. 

Write an exclamatory sentence. 

Write a simple sentence containing a compound 
subject. 



Definitions of Parts ^f Speech 17 

Write a simple sentence containing a compound 
predicate. 

Write a simple sentence containing both compound 
subject and compound predicate. 

11. WRITE A COMPOUND SENTENCE for each 
of the following co-ordinate conjunctions: But, yet, 
still, either . . . .or; neither .... nor; 
therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover. 

Write a complex sentence for each of the following 
subordinate conjunctions: Although, though, unless, if, 
since (= because), as (—since), that (in order that, 
so that, provided that, in case that), whether. 



CHAPTER II. 
Definitions of Parts of Speech. 

12. PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a connective placed before a sub- 
stantive to bind its relation to some other word in the 
sentence. 

The word which follows the preposition is called the 
Object. 

Examples : There is a tennis court at the club. 

"At" shows the relation between "court" and "club," 
i. e., it gives the location of the "court" with respect to 
the "club". 

His office is on the fifth floor. 

"On" shows the position of "office" with respect to 
"floor". 



18 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

We tramped over the hill. 

"Over" explains the action of "we" in regard to "hill". 

The following are the most common prepositions ; use 
each one in a sentence and explain how they are used as 
connectives : 

Before, after, in, between, for, of, off, into, to, down, 
up, by, against, beside, besides, around, about, above, 
across, along, amid, amidst, among, behind, below, 
beyond, except, through, throughout, under, until, upon, 
with, within, without, from. 

13. NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of a Person, Place or Thing. 
Examples: Man, child, door, station, trench, Boston, 
France, ease, friendship, etc. 

14. A PRONOUN is a word that is used to refer to a 
Person, Place or Thing without giving it a name. It 
stands for a noun. 

Examples: she, hers, her, he, his, him, it, its, who, 
whose, whom, which, what, this, that, they, theirs, them, 
myself, yourself, himself, herself, themselves, you, yours, 
etc. 

Nouns and Pronouns are called Substantives. 

The Simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. 

15. ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word which limits or describes a 
noun or substantive. 

Definition : A word or group of words which changes 
the meaning of another word is called a modifier of 
that word and the word thus changed in meaning is 
said to be "modified". 



Definitions of Parts of Speech 19 

Adjectives then are modifiers. 

Examples : Large transport, lame man, hard fighting, 
square deal, dainty maiden, etc. 

16. VERBS. 

A Verb is a word which asserts an action, state or 
condition about a person, place or thing. 
Examples : The boy runs. 

Her eyes laughed. 
The shells burst. 
The barn fell in the storm. 
The verbs thus used express action. 
The following verbs show condition or state: 

"Under the spreading chestnut tree the village 

smithy stands." 
They feel the shock very much. 
Her voice rings true. 
A Verb-Phrase is a group of words that is used as a 
verb. 

Examples: He is talking. 

They were singing in church. 
She has done her share. 
The troops might have perished had it 
not been for the Red Cross. 

17. AUXILIARY VERBS are verbs which aid other 
verbs to express action, state or condition. 

Examples: The big Ocean liner zvas slowly nearing 
the shore. 
I was born in this house. 

We sliall have been living here two 
months to-morrow. 



20 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



The Auxiliary verbs are : shall, will, should, would, 
can, may, might, must, have, had, do, did, is, are, was, 
were. 

The Participle is a form of the verb without subject 
and resembling an adjective; it expresses action or state 
by modifying a substantive. 

Examples: Firing his last shot, the soldier cried, 
"We've won." 
Having found her lost treasure, the girl 
rejoiced. 
The Simple Predicate of a sentence is a Verb or 
Verb-Phrase. 

18. ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjec- 
tive or other adverb. 

Examples: He spoke quickly. (Modifier of verb.) 
This is a perfectly beautiful day. (Modi- 
fier of adjective.) 
He spoke too quickly. (Modifier of 
adverb.) 

19. INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is an exclamation that denotes some 
emotion, such as surprise, anger t contentment or pleasure. 
Examples: Oh, halloo, ha ha, alas, ah, pshaw, hur- 
rah, etc. 



Nouns 



21 



CHAPTER III. 



Nouns. 



20. A NOUN is the name of a Person, Place or Thing. 
Nouns or Substantives have Gender, Number and Case. 
Gender in English is distinguished by sex. 

A noun or pronoun denoting a male is of the mascu- 
line gender, as, — John, boy, page, he, chief, Colonel, him, 
plumber, etc. 

A noun or pronoun denoting a female is of the femi- 
nine gender, as, — girl, Dorothy, squaw, she, maid, lady, 
hairdresser, laundress, etc. 

A noun or pronoun denoting no sex is of the neuter 
gender, as, — book, hat, river, camp, it, light, friendship, 
etc. 

A noun or pronoun which may be of either sex is said 
to be of common gender, as, — dog, cat, horse, soloist, 
pianist, newcomer, neighbor, etc. 

21. THE MASCULINE AND FEMININE of some 
nouns are formed in the following manner : 



Masculine. Feminine. 



Masculine. Feminine. 



father 


mother. 


horse 


mare. 


brother 


sister. 


cock 


hen. 


husband 


wife. 


bull 


cow. 


uncle 


aunt. 


buck 


doe. 


lord 


lady. 


fox 


vixen 


king 


queen. 


gander 


goose. 


monk 


nun. 


ram 


ewe. 


wizard 


witch. 


lad 


lass. 



22 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


widowER. 


waiter 


waitrESS. 


WOMAN. 


Hon 


lionESS. 


brideGROOM. 


enchantor 


enchantrESS. 


actrESS. 


hero 


heroiNE. 


authorESS. 


sultan 


sultanA. 


emprESS. 


Edwin 


EdwinA. 


princEss. 


executor 


executRix. 



22. IN THE FOLLOWING CASES, the ending is 
merely added to form the feminine. 

Masculine. 

widow 

man 

bride 

actor 

author 

emperor 

prince 

23. THE GENDER OF A NOUN may sometimes be 
indicated by the accompaniment of a pronoun, as, — 

The horse has her new harness. 
The soloist sang all of his popular songs. 
The stranger told the story of his life. 
My neighbor sent me her card. 

24. NUMBER. 

The Number of a noun or Substantive indicates 
whether one person, place or thing are spoken of or 
more than one. 

Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural. 

The singular denotes but one person, place or thing. 

The plural denotes more than one person, place or 
thing. 

Regular formation of the plural : Add ^ or cs to 
the singular. 

Example : king, kings ; desk, desks ; trench, trenches ; 
bench, benches. 

Nouns ending in s, x, s, ch or sh, form their plural by 
adding es. 

Example : cross, crosses ; tax, taxes ; buzz, buzzes ; 
patch, patches; bush, bushes; etc. 



Nouns 23 



25. EXERCISE: Make a list of other nouns that 
come under this head and write their plurals. 

Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form their 
plural by adding es. 

Example : potato, potatoes; cargo, cargoes; motto, 
mottoes; hero, heroes; buffalo, buffaloes; tomato, 
tomatoes. 

Exceptions: piano, banjo, canto, bravo, solo, casino, 
contralto, soprano, quarto, octavo, proviso, burro, chromo, 
stiletto, lasso, torso; Halo, Memento and Zero form 
their plural in .$• or es. 

Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their 
plural by adding s. 

Example : folio, folios; cameo, cameos; trio, trios; 
etc. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y 
to i and add es to form the plural. 

Example: baby, babies; lady, ladies; fly, flies; 
ferry, ferries; country, countries; pansy, pansies; 
penny, pennies; etc. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel add s to form 
the plural. 

Example : day, days; way, ways; valley, valleys; 
turkey, turkeys; boy, boys; toy, toys; etc. 

Some nouns ending in / or fe change the f to v and 
add j or es. 

Example: knife, knives; life, lives; self, selves; 
half, halves; loaf, loaves; shelf, shelves; wharf, 
wharves; wife, ivives; thief, thieves; wolf, wolves; 
leaf, leaves; elf, elves; beef, beeves; sheaf, sheaves. 



24 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

26. IRREGULAR FORMATION OF THE 

PLURAL. 

Examples: man, men; woman, women; ox, oxen; 
foot, feet; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; goose, geese; 
child, children; brother, brethren (brothers). 

Compounds of man or woman form their plurals in 
the same way, as, — Frenchman, Frenchmen; English- 
man, Englishmen ; Dutchman, Dutchmen; fireman, fire- 
men; foreman, foremen; saleswoman, saleszvomen; 
zvashwoman, washwomen ; etc. 

When a noun is not a compound of man or woman 
the plural is formed regularly, as, — German, Germans; 
Norman, Normans; Ottoman, Ottomans; talisman, talis- 
mans; etc. 

The following nouns have the same form in the sin- 
gular and plural : Japanese, Portuguese, Iroquois, deer, 
sheep, pair, trout, score, heathen, head, (of cattle), 
camouflage, Entente, Triple Alliance, etc. 

In compound nouns the last part usually forms the 
plural ; sometimes the first ; seldom both parts. 

Examples: mouthful, mouthfuls; spoonful, spoon- 
fuls; hothouse, hothouses; forget-me-not, forget-me- 
•nots; fortune teller, fortune tellers; maid of honor, 
maids of honor; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief ; moth- 
er-in-law, mothers-in-law ; manservant, menservants ; 
man-of-war, men-of-zvar; gentleman usher, gentlemen 
ushers; etc. 

27. Letters, figures and symbols form their plurals 
by the use of the apostrophe and s. 

Examples: r's ; l's ; b's ; 9's ; 4's ; 2's ; ='s; $'s; 
*'s; and's; if's; not's ; etc. 



Nouns 25 



28. The plural of Mr. is an abbreviation from the 
French, i. e., Meissieurs, (Messrs.) 

Example : Mr. Brown, Messrs. Brown. 
The plural of Miss is the Misses. 
Example : Miss Kent, the Misses Kent, or, the Miss 
Kents. (The latter is more or less informal.) 

The plural of Mrs. is written in the following manner : 
Mrs. Clark, the Mrs. Clarks, or, Mesdames Clark. 
The plural of Master is Masters. 
Example: Master King, the Masters King. 

29. NOUNS USED IN THE PLURAL ONLY. 
Scissors, spectacles, (glasses), trousers, riches, tongs, 

tweezers, billiards, oats, links, nuptials, etc. 

30. NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM BUT SINGU- 

LAR IN MEANING. 

Mumps, measles, smallpox, mathematics, physics, 
economics, politics, tactics, news, etc. 

31. Nouns are divided into two classes: Proper nouns 
and Common nouns. 

A Proper noun is the name of a particular person, 
place or thing, as, — Marcus, Europe, Easter, Chicago, 
General, Saturday, Latin, English, etc. 

A Common noun is the name which is generally ap- 
plied to any one of a class of persons, places or things, 
as, — ship, city, tree, manner, position, telepathy, woman- 
hood, etc. 

Proper nouns begin with a capital letter. 

Common nouns begin with a small letter. 

A Common noun that expresses a quality is termed 
Abstract. 



26 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Examples: Experience, friendship, beauty, depth, 
fear, thrift, stability, frankness, etc. 

32. Think of other abstract nouns and write each in 
a sentence. 

(1) In regard to the Great War. 

(2) In regard to your work at school. 

(3) In regard to your friends. 

33. A COLLECTIVE NOUN is the name given to a 
group or class of similar objects but not to any one per- 
son, place or thing, as, — crowd, fleet, the Ladies' Aid, 
the General Assembly, Freshman Class, etc. 

34. Think of other collective nouns and use each in 
a sentence. 

Note. — A collective noun takes a singular verb 
although more than one object is indicated. 

A collective noun sometimes, however, takes a plural 
verb, as, — They were a happy pair. 

The committee call for another session. 

All other common nouns are known as Concrete. 

Most proper nouns ending in y, form the plural by 
adding s. 

Example: Henry, Henrys; Berry, Berrys; Cary, 
Carys ; etc. 

35. CASE. 

The different forms in which nouns may be used in 
relation to other words in the sentence are called Cases. 

The Summary of these forms is called the Declen- 
sion of the noun. 



Nouns 



27 



There are four cases in English: Nominative, Pos- 
sessive, (Genitive), Objective, (Accusative), and 
Vocative. 

The change in form in any word indicates a different 
meaning. This change is called Inflection. 

36. MODEL DECLENSION OF -A NOUN. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative, 


■ girl. 


girls. 


Possessive. 


girl's. (Genitive). 


girls'. 


Objective. 


girl. (Accusative). 


girls. 


Vocative. 


girl. 


girls. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative. 


. man. 


men. 


Possessive. 


man's. (Genitive). 


men's. 


Objective. 


man. (Accusative). 


men. 


Vocative. 


man. 


men. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative 


. lady. 


ladies. 


Possessive. 


lady's. (Genitive). 


ladies'. 


Objective. 


lady. (Accusative). 


ladies. 


Vocative. 


lady. 


ladies. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative 


. valley. 


valleys. 


Possessive. 


valley's. (Genitive). 


valleys'. 


Objective. 


valley. (Accusative). 


valleys. 


Vocative. 


valley. 


valleys. 



The Nominative, Accusative and Vocative in English 
have the same form. What Inflection occurs in the 
above declensions? 



28 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

36. EXERCISE: Decline each of the following sub- 
stantives: boy, fly, trench, kit, cross, calf, deer, hero, 
zvolf, library, ally, day, company, trolley, lass, goose, life. 
Give the rule for the formation of each plural. 

37. THE CASES. 

The Nominative case is the case of the subject. 
Examples: Fire burns. 

Three men were gassed. 
Peace has come. 
The Nominative Case is the case of the Predicate 
Nominative. The Predicate Nominative completes 
the meaning of the predicate and means the same as the 
subject. 

Examples: Mrs. Haig is my aunt. 
Bob is his cousin. 
George was made captain. 
We are Americans. 
A Vocative is in the Nominative Case and is often 
known as the Nominative of Direct Address. 
Examples : Jack, it is five o'clock, we must go. 
Come here, Helen. 
Your car is ready, sir. 
Definitions: An Adjunct is a word or group of words 
added to qualify the force of other words. 

A noun is in Apposition with another noun when it 

is placed beside it in a parallel construction without a 

connective and when it is used as a limiting Adjunct. 

The Nominative Case is the case of the Noun Apposi- 

tive. 



Nouns 29 



Examples : My lawyer, Mr. Knight, has won the 
suit. (App. with Sub.) 
It was Dick, the Freshman, who made 

the hit. (App. with Pred. Nom.) 
Dick, old pal, I am so glad to see you. 
(App. with Vocative.) 
The above nouns are called Appositives, and they take 
the same case as the noun which they limit. 

The Nominative Case is the case of the Nominative 
Absolute. 

Example: The ship sinking, the signals were given. 
(The noun ship and the participle sinking are used to- 
gether to denote the cause of the action expressed by 
the verb, given. This expression is a modifier of the 
verb, given.) 

38. THE POSSESSIVE CASE is used to denote 
Possession. 

Example: The boy's club, Henry's hat, the day's 
work, the dog's tracks, etc. 

Rules for the use of the apostrophe and s. Most 
nouns in the singular form their possessive by adding 's. 

Example : Baby's doll, the cat's paw, life's pleasures, 
the ship's tonnage, etc. 

Plural nouns ending in ^ take the Apostrophe only. 

Example: The boys' clubs, the days' work, the dogs' 
tracks, the ships' tonnage, the babies' dolls, etc. 

Plural nouns not ending in s take 's in the possessive. 

Example: The children's playground, the motormen's 
league, the fishermen's luck, etc. 

39. Nouns of one syllable ending in .? or an 5 sound 
form their possessive by adding 's. 



30 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Example : Jones's farm, Charles's car, Dr. Wells's 
office, Miss Nix's party, Camp Dix's men, James's com- 
pany, Burns's poems, etc. 

The following nouns may be written with the apos- 
trophe only, although the usage is not common : Charles', 
James', Burns', Wells', etc. 

Nouns of two syllables ending in ^ or an ^ sound form 
their possessive by adding 's when they are not accented 
on the last syllable. Examples : Doris's wedding, Mr. 
Harris's villa, the princess's gozvn, the actress's debut, 
Alice's arrival, Wallace's market, etc. The (') only may 
be used but the 's is preferable. 

The last part of a compound noun takes the possessive 
sign. Example: His brother-in-law's home, the for- 
tune-teller's story, the machine-gun's fire, the editor-in- 
chief's report, etc. 

40. When an object belongs to more than one person, 
the possessive is added to the last only. When, however, 
each person claims independent ownership, the posses- 
sive sign is added to each. 

Examples: Allen and Noble's School (Partnership), 
Allen's and Noble's Schools, (each independent of the 
other), The President and the Secretary's opinion, (undi- 
vided). The President's and the Secretary's opinions, 
(each independent), etc. 

41. OBJECTIVE CASE. (Accusative). The Objec- 
tive Case is the case of the Object. 

The object of a Preposition is in the objective case. 
(Ace). 



Nouns 31 



Examples : She is sitting in the swing. 

This is between you and me. (See Pro- 
nouns, Chapter IV.) 
We heard from the front to-day. 
He went to Boston this morning. 

42. THE OBJECT OF THE VERB is in the objec- 
tive case. (Accusative). 

Definition : A Transitive Verb is a verb which is 
followed by a noun or substantive which receives the 
action, or, is produced by it. All other verbs are called 
Intransitive. 

A noun or substantive that completes the meaning 
of a transitive verb is called the direct object and is in 
the objective (accusative) case. 

Intransitive verbs do not take any object. 
Examples of direct object : 

The shell hit the captain in the knee. 
He broke his leg. 

They found the child in the garden. 
The Smiths sold their house. 
We raise strawberries in our garden. 
They make powder in that factory. 
She embroiders initials beautifully. 
In the first four sentences, the nouns which follow the 
verbs, in each case, denote the receivers of the action. 
In the last three sentences, the nouns which follow the 
verbs express that which is produced by the action. 

In each of the above examples, the direct object com- 
pletes the meaning of the verb but it does not describe 
or define the subject. The direct object indicates that 
upon which the subject acts. 



32 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

43. EXERCISE: Write two sentences containing (1) 
direct objects denoting the receivers of the action; (2) 
direct objects denoting that which is produced by the 
action. 

Write two sentences containing predicate nomina- 
tives. 

Explain how each of these differs from direct objects. 

44. Example of Intransitive verbs : 
The guns roared. 

The bell rang twice. 

The captain fell in action. 

The transport arrived safely. 

In each of these sentences the verb does not admit of 
any object as the meaning is complete without another 
noun to denote the receiver of the action. 

The Direct Object and the Predicate Nominative 
are called Complements because they complete the 
meaning of the predicate. 

45. When a transitive verb is not complete until a 
second noun or adjective is added to distinguish the 
object, the noun or adjective thus used is called an 
Adjunct accusative. It is also termed a Predicate 
Objective. 

Examples: They named the boy Charles. 
We chose Dick our captain. 
They thought her a friend. 
We deem him kind and true. 
I made my brother curious. 
Rule: Verbs of choosing, naming, calling, mak- 
ing, thinking and asking may take tivo objects refer- 
ring to the same person or thing. 



Nouns 33 



EXERCISE: Write a sentence for each kind of verb 
that takes an Adjunct Accusative. 

46. Objective Case (Accusative) known as the 
(Dative) of the Indirect Object. 

The following verbs admit of Indirect Objects: They 
may also take Direct Objects. 

The Indirect Object denotes the person or thing 
toward whom or toward which the action is directed. 
Give, tell, let, send, leave, allow, hand, show, teach, 
sell, lend, write, forgive, throw, sing, bring, owe, forbid, 
pardon, pass, refuse, deny, assign, remit, restore, refund, 
lease, guarantee, etc. 

Examples : She gave the boy a book. 
I sold Mr. Judd my car. 
They brought the children some toys. 
I will assign the class a new lesson. 
The officer showed the surgeon his 
wound. 
The above sentences contain direct and indirect ob- 
jects. Name them and explain the difference. ■ 

EXERCISE : Write five sentences containing only in- 
direct objects. 

47. PRONOUNS AS INDIRECT OBJECTS. 
Examples : She told me a story. 

You owe her an apology. 
He refused them a pass. 
Before each indirect object the preposition to is 
understood ; indirect objects are, therefore, objects of 
a preposition and, consequently, take the objective case. 
Sometimes, however, the preposition for is understood, 
as: 



34 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

They found me a house. (For me) 
Edward made his brother a boat. (For his 
brother) 

48. Like, unlike, near and next used in the following 
manner are considered prepositions. In other cases they 
are adjectives or adverbs. 

Examples: She is like a doll. (Lifee^ adjective ; the 
preposition to is understood before doll ; dol\= objective 
case.) 

He ran like the wind. (Like=adverb; same construc- 
tion as before. (Like unto.) 

EXERCISE: Write sentences for each of the other 
words under this head and explain them. 

49. THE COGNATE OBJECT of a verb repeats the 
idea of the verb. Such a noun is usually the object of an 
intransitive verb. 

Examples : He fought the good fight of the brave. 
They dealt a fair deal. 
She thought a sweet thought. 
He ran a race. 

PERSON. 

50. Person is that property of nouns or substantives 
which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or, the one 
spoken of. 

Examples of the three persons. 
The First Person denotes the speaker. 
The Second Person denotes the one spoken to. 
The Third Person denotes the person or thing spoken 
of- 

I, the General, command my troops. (First person.) 



Nouns 35 



I thoroughly agree with you. (First person.) 
You, the policeman, should enforce the law. (Second 
person.) 

You are very clever. (Second person.) 

She, the actress, is very attractive. (Third person.) 

He is coming home soon. (Third person.) 

Jack is studying law. (Third person.) 

The ocean was fierce in the storm. (Third person.) 

The girls are sewing. (Third person.) 

The idea is ridiculous. (Third person.) 

THE INFINITIVE. 

51. The Infinitive closely resembles a noun; it is 
a form of the verb, without person or number, usually 
preceded by the preposition to. Like a verb, it expresses 
action or state. 

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 
Example: I found him to be untrue. 

In this sentence, him is the subject of the infinitive to 
be and is in the objective case. 

They consider Alice to be talented. (Alices objective 
case, subject of the infinitive to be. 

EXERCISE: Define a noun. 

Define gender, number and case; give two examples 
of each- 
Show how the masculine and feminine of some nouns 
are formed. ' 

Show how an ending may form the feminine. 
Show how a pronoun may distinguish gender. 
Define number; what does the singular number de- 
note? Plural? 



36 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Give the rule for the regular formation of the 
plural. Give three examples. 

Give the rule for nouns ending in o preceded by a 
consonant. Give four examples; give four exceptions. 

Give the rule for nouns ending in o preceded by a 
vowel. Give three examples. 

Give the rule for nouns ending in y preceded by a 
consonant. Give four examples. 

Give the rule for nouns ending in y preceded by a 
vowel. Give six examples. 

Give the rule for nouns ending in f or fe. Give ten 
examples. 

Tell all you know of the Irregular formation of the 
plural. 

How do letters, figures and symbols form the plural? 
Give four examples. 

What is the plural of Mr.?; Miss?; Mrs.?; Master? 

Name ten nouns used in the plural only. 

Name ten nouns plural in form but singular in mean- 
ing. 

Into what tzvo classes are nouns divided? Define and 
and give examples of each. 

What is an abstract noun? Give three examples in 
sentences. 

What is a collective noun? Give four examples in 
sentences. 

Write two sentences in which the collective noun takes 
a plural verb. 

What are concrete nouns? 

How do proper nouns ending in y form their plural? 

Define case. 



Nouns 37 



Define declension. 

Define inflection. 

How many cases are there in English ? Name them. 

Decline each of the following words : boy, girl, day, 
turkey, lady, baby, man, life, elf, calf, trench, deer, child, 
goose, ox, Norman, Portuguese, trout. 

Give all the uses of the nominative case and give two 
examples of each. 

What is meant by a vocative? 

What is the possessive case? 

Give the rules for the apostrophe and s. Give four 
examples. 

Give the rule for plural nouns ending in s. Give four 
examples. 

Give the rule for plural nouns not ending in s. Give 
four examples. 

Give the rule for one syllable nouns ending in s or 
an s sound. Give four examples. 

Give the rule for nouns of tzvo syllables ending in s 
or an s sound. Give four examples. 

How does a compound noun form the possessive? 
Give two examples. 

Describe the possessive in dependent and independent 
ownership. Give tzvo examples of each. 

Define the objective case. 

Give all the uses of the objective case in turn and 
give five examples of each. 

What is meant by person? Give four examples of 
each. 

What is an infinitive? Show how it is used under the 
objective case; what has it to do with nouns? 



38 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

CHAPTER IV. 
Pronouns. 

52. A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a 
noun. It refers to a person, place or thing without 
giving it a name. 

The noun or substantive to which a pronoun refers is 
called its antecedent. Pronouns must agree with their 

ANTECEDENTS in PERSON, NUMBER and GENDER, but their 

case depends upon the use in the sentence. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

53. Personal Pronouns denote the speaker, the one 
spoken to, or the person, place or thing spoken of. 

Declension of the personal pronoun in the three 
persons. 

First Person. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nominative. I. We. 

Possessive. My or Mine. (Gen.) Our or Ours. 

Objective. Me. (Accusative) Us. 
Second Person. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nominative. Thou. You or Ye. 

Possessive. Thy or Thine. (Gen.) Your or Yours. 

Objective. Thee. (Accusative) You or Ye. 
Third Person. 
Singular. Plural. 

Mas. Fern. Neuter. Mas. Fem. Neuter. 

Nominative. He. She. It. They. 

Possessive. His. Her or Hers. Its. Their or Theirs. 
Objective. Him. Her. It. Them. 



Pronouns 39 



Note. — The pronouns of the first and second persons 
may be either masculine or feminine; the pronouns of 
the third person may be masculine, feminine or neuter 
in form. 

54. EXERCISE : Fill in each of the following blanks 
with the pronoun required and give the reasons for so 
doing each time. 

It is (First person). 

It is (Second person). 

It is (Third person). 

This is between you and (First person). 

Both numbers. 

This is between you and (Third person). 

Both numbers; all genders. 

T gave a book. (Third pers., sing, number, 

feminine gender. 
She sent a dollar. (First pers., sing, num- 
ber.) 
Place John beside . (Third pers., sing, num- 
ber, mas. gender.) 
Write a sentence for each of the cases of the personal 
pronoun in all numbers, persons and genders. 

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 
55. Reflexive Pronouns refer back to the person 
denoted by the subject and repeat its meaning. They 
are also called Compound Personal Pronouns. 
Examples: I have found that so myself. 

He is very proud of her himself. 
We believe it ourselves. 



40 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Singular. Plural. 

Myself. Ourselves. 

Thyself or Yourself. Yourselves. 

Himself, Herself, Itself. Themselves. 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
56. Possessive Pronouns are used when they are fol- 
lozved by a noun. 

Examples: My book, possessor, I. 

His pencil, possessor, he. 
Possessive pronouns are of three persons. 

Form I. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Sing., my. Plur., our. Sing., thy, your. Plur., your. 

Third Person. 
Singular, His, Her, Its. Plural, Their. 

Note. — The three persons of Form I. are also termed 
Possessive Adjectives because they modify nouns. 

Form II. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Sing., Mine. Plur., Ours. Sing., Thine. Plur., Yours. 

Third Person. 
Singular, Hers, His. Plural, Theirs. 

The pronouns of Form II. usually stand in the predi- 
cate and are not always followed by a noun. 
Example: The decision was mine. 
The victory is theirs. 
That remark was his. 
These tickets are ours. 
The house is not hers. 



Pronouns 41 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

57. Adjective Pronouns are pronouns which may be 
used either as adjectives or pronouns. 

Adjective pronouns are divided into two classes : 
Demonstrative pronouns and Indefinite pronouns. 

Demonstrative pronouns point out persons, places 
or things. Their strongest point is that they call special 
attention to these persons, places or things. 

Singular. Plural. 

this, that. these, those. 

(1) Used as pronouns: 

This is a beautiful country. 
Did you make this? 
That was Helen in the car. 
Could you do that? 
These are lovely roses. 
He showed me these. 
I like those better. 
Didn't you see those? 

(2) Used as adjectives: 

This soldier gave the signal. 
You may have this suite. 
Did you enjoy that play? 
That fellow has talent. 
These times have changed. 
Did she select these gowns? 
Those boys are clever. 
I liked those books very much. 

58. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS point out less 
definitely than Demonstrative pronouns. 



42 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

The most common Indefinites are, — some, any, none, 
such, each, every, either, both, neither, other, another, 
each other, one another, etc. 

Most Indefinite pronouns may also be used either as 
pronouns or adjectives. 

Examples: Each has a right. 

Each child may have a turn. 

Both are pretty. 

Both views are pretty. 

EXERCISE: Write sentences showing the two usages 
for each of the other Indefinites where possible. 

Note. — None is always a noun or substantive ; every 
is always an adjective. Each other and one another 
are Compound Pronouns. They are also called Re- 
ciprocal Pronouns because they impress the idea of 
reciprocity and designate related persons or things. 

Pronouns such as few, several, all, many, etc., are 
called (Pronominal Adjectives) when they are used 
adjectively; otherwise they are classed as Indefinites. 

One may be termed an Indefinite Personal Pro- 
noun. Somebody, anybody, everybody, everything, any- 
thing, etc., are sometimes called Indefinite nouns as 
well as Pronouns. 

Rule Repeated: Pronouns must agree with their 
antecedents in person, number and gender. 

Example: Each should go his way. 

Everybody must give his version. 
Every pupil must sit in his own seat. 
Each of the soldier boys told his story. 



Pronouns 43 



When a pronoun is of common gender, as in these 
first three sentences, the personal pronoun his may be 
regarded as of common gender also. 

None may be either singular or plural. 

Example : None of us was present. 
None zvere very happy. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

59. Relative Pronouns serve both as pronouns and 
connectives. They are connectives between dependent 
and independent clauses. They refer back to a noun 
in the principal clause. The noun or substantive to 
which such a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. - 

The relative pronouns are who, which, that, what and 
as. Who and which may be declined as follows : 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative, who. which. 

Possessive, whose. whose. 

Objective. whom. which. 

It will be noted that these pronouns have the same 
form for both numbers and for the three persons. 

The CASE of a relative pronoun depends upon its own 
construction in the sentence. 

Example: The boys whom you see in this section 
escaped injury. (Whom is in the obj. case, obj. of see, 
but its antecedent is in the nominative case.) 

The boys who were in that section escaped injury. 
(Who is in the nominative case, sub. of zvere.) 

This is the same as I have. (As is in the obj. case,, 
obj. of have, but its antecedent, same, is in the notn. 
case, why?) 



44 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

This is the man that I invited. (That is in the obj. 
case, obj. of invited, but its antecedent, man, is in the 
now,, case, why?) 

60. Who may be either masculine or feminine ; which 
and what are neuter; that and as are of any one of 
the three genders. 

Examples: It is she who exclaimed. 

The boy whose arm was broken is get- 
ting well. 
The girls to whom you spoke were nurses. 
This is the ship that leaves in the morn- 
ing. 
I did not find anybody that understood. 
There is the girl that you liked. 
We are helping the man that asked for 

work. 
The sunset that I saw last evening was 
glorious. 
Describe each of the pronouns used above, giving 
all reasons where possible. 

Which is used to refer to lower animals. 
Examples: I bought the dog which we saw at the 
show. 
We have two horses which were sent to 

the front. 
He has a pony whose name is Sam. 
(Whose may be used of any object 
possessing life.) 
This is the rose whose odor wafted 

sweetness. 
I have a brother whose name is Bob. 



Pronouns 45 



61. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHAT conveys 
the meaning that which. For this reason it has two 
constructions. 

Example : What was left was mutilated. 

In this sentence what has the meaning, that which ; 
it may be the subject of either was. 
She always does what she says. 

In this sentence what again has the double construc- 
tion; it may be the object of does and the object of 
says. 

I found what I expected. 

Here we have what used as object of found and object 
of expected. 

We like what is good. 

What in this case is the object of like and the subject 
of is. 

Note. — In all cases, remember that what, in such 
constructions as above, has the equivalent meaning of 
"that which." 

62. DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND RELA- 

TIVE PRONOUN. 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative, whoever, (whosoever), whichever, (which- 
soever). 
Possessive, whosever, (whosesoever). 
Objective, whomever, (whomsoever), whichever, (which- 
soever). 
Proper use of whoever and whomever. 
We shall see whoever comes first. (\\ T hocy(tv=sub. 
of comes.) 



46 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

This is the prize for zvhoever wins. (Whoever^ 
sub. of wins.) 

We shall see whomever you please. Whomever=o&/. 
of please.) 

They will send the prize to whomever you say. 
(Whomever=: obj. of say.) 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

63. Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns which ask 
a question. They are who, which and what. 

Examples: Who is here? 

Who has brought the news? 

Whose name did you call? . 

Whose step is that? 

Whom have you found? 

Of whom did she speak? 

Which is the best? 

Which of those boys went to war? 

What has happened? 

What is the price of that car? 
It may be noted that who has a nom., poss., and obj. 
form, but which and wJiat are not inflected. 

Who is of either mas. or fem. gender; which and 
what may be of any of the three genders. 

64. Which and what may be used as Interrogative 
Adjectives. 

Examples: Which ship shall I take? 
Which road is the better? 
What flag is that? 
What name do you wish? 



Pronouns 47 



PARSING. 
65. To Parse a noun or pronoun is to give its con- 
struction and characteristics in its grammatical 

FORM. 

Parsing a noun or pronoun covers three points : 

(1) Classification. 

(2) Gender, number, person and case. 

(3) Construction in the sentence. 

Examples : Susan has come. (Susan is a proper 
noun of the feminine gender, singular number, third per- 
son. It is in the nominative case, being the subject of 
the verb, has come.) 

She is my cousin. (She is a personal pronoun of the 
third person, sing, number, fern, gender, nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb, is.) 

The man whom I met at the station was my brother. 
(Man is a common noun of the masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, third person, nominative case, being the 
subject of the verb, was.) (Whom is a relative pronoun 
of the masculine gender, singular number, third person 
agreeing with its antecedent, man. It is in the objec- 
tive case, being the object of the transitive verb, met.) 
(I is a personal pronoun of the common gender, singular 
number, first person, nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb, met.) (Station is a common noun of the 
neuter gender, singular number, third person, objective 
case, being the object of the preposition, at.) (Brother 
is a common noun of the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, nominative case, being the predi- 
cate nominative after the verb, was.) 



48 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

I hurt myself. {Myself is a compound personal pro- 
noun of the first person, common gender, singular num- 
ber, agreeing with its antecedent, /. It is the ob- 
jective case, being the object of the transitive verb, 
hurt.) 

Whose house shall we visit? (Whose is an interroga- 
tive pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, singu- 
lar number, possessive case, modifying the common 
noun, house.) 

The Captain whose name was just read comes from 
India. (Whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine 
gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing 
with its antecedent, captain. It is in the possessive 
case, modifying the noun, name.) 



CHAPTER V. 

Adjectives. 

66. An Adjective is a word which limits or describes 
a substantive. 

Adjectives are of two kinds: Descriptive and Defini- 
tive. In the first case, they describe objects ; in the 
second case, they point out objects. 
Examples of case I. : 

The round table is in the center of the room. 
The camouflaged ships arrived safely. 
Examples of case II. : 
This house is for sale. 
Those pictures are official. 



Adjectives 49 



Adjectives formed from Proper nouns are called 
Proper adjectives. 

Example: Spanish lesson; Mexican blanket; Turk- 
ish rug, etc. 

An Appositive adjective is added to a substantive for 
the sake of explanation. 

Example : The brook clear and shady ran through 
the meadow. 
The battalion, tired and dejected, marched 
down the avenue. 

67. A PREDICATE ADJECTIVE COMPLETES 
the meaning of the verb and describes the subject. 

Examples : Snow is white. 

The boy was pale from fright. 
Notice the use of the predicate adjective after each 
of the following verbs : 

Your garden looks luxuriant. 
This rose smells so sweet. 
The boys feel happy. 
These strawberries taste good. 
The engine sounds powerful. 

68. PREDICATE ADJECTIVES AND PREDI- 
CATE NOMINATIVES are similar in their construc- 
tion. As they both complete the meaning of the verb, 
they are called Complements. 

EXERCISE: Write three predicate nominatives. 
Write three predicate adjectives. 



50 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

THE ARTICLES. 
69. The Definite Article the points out one or more 
particular object or objects as distinct from some others 
of the same kind. 

Examples: The House was pleased with the speech. 
We saw the ship embark. 
Jim and I went to the dance last night. 
The boys of the "77th" division have 
arrived. 
The Indefinite Article a or an does not point out 
any particular object but simply designates an object as 
one of a general class or kind. 

Examples : A man spoke at the meeting. 
Please give me a chance. 
We had a shower to-day. 
A gun was fired at sunset. 
An is used before words beginning with a vowel or 
silent h, — as : 

I have an apple for you. 
He has an order for three machines. 
Will you spend an hour with me? 
We have an interest in that business. 
You may rest assured that he is an honest man. 
Exceptions: Words beginning with the sound of y, 
w, or before words beginning with h when accented on 
the first syllable must be preceded by a. 

Example: a university; a eulogy; a union; a yew; 
a Euclid; a European country; a Utopian idea; a his- 
tory; a hippodrome; a hobby, but — an homologous 
side ; an homeopathic remedy, etc. 



Adjectives 51 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

70. Cardinal numeral adjectives are those used in 
counting, and answer the question, "how many?" 

Examples : Harry is fourteen years old to-day. 
My license cost three dollars. 
There were one-hundred fifty men in the 
company. 
Ordinal numeral adjectives indicate the position or 
order of a person or thing in a series. 

Examples: He is the fifth son. 

- We sat in the second row. 
You may have the first shot at the target. 

71. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
Adjectives may be compared and the three different 

degrees in which they appear are called Degrees of 
Comparison. 

The names of these degrees are Positive, Comparative 
and Superlative. 

The simplest form of the adjective is the Positive 
Degree; it has no special ending. 

Examples: Julia is tall. Tom is nice. The rose is 
pretty. 

The Comparative Degree of the adjective is formed 
by adding the termination er to the Positive Degree. 

Examples: Julia is taller than Ellen. Tom is nicer 
than Roy. The rose is prettier than the tulip. 

The Superlative Degree of the adjective is formed 
by adding the termination est to the Positive Decree. 



52 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Examples: Julia is the tallest of the three. 
Tom is the nicest of the three. 
The rose is the prettiest of the three 
flowers. 

72. RULES : Adjectives ending in silent e, drop this 
e in forming the comparative and superlative degrees. 

Examples : nice, nicer, nicest ; white, whiter, whitest ; 
wise, wiser, wisest ; pure, purer, purest, etc. 

Most adjectives ending in y, change y to i in forming 
the comparative and superlative degrees. 

Examples: pretty, prettier, prettiest; happy, happier, 
happiest. 

One syllable adjectives having a short vowel preceded 
by a consonant, double this consonant in forming the 
comparative and superlative degrees. 

Examples: thin, thinner, thinnest; big, bigger, big- 
gest ; sad, sadder, saddest ; red, redder, reddest, etc. 

73. Some adjectives are compared by adding the ad- 
verbs more and most to the Positive Degree. 

Examples: terrible, more terrible, most terrible; 
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful ; difficult, more 
difficult, most difficult ; noted, more noted, most noted., 
etc. 

(Many adjectives of tzvo or more syllables are com- 
pared as above ; some, however, may be compared 
either way. 

Examples: polite, politer, politest; polite, more po- 
lite, most polite ; profound, prof ounder, prof oundest ; 
profound, more profound, most profound, etc. 



Adjectives 



53 



74. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJEC- 
TIVES. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


late, 


later, latter, 


latest, last. 


bad (evil, ill), 


worse, 


zvorst. 


good, 


better, 


best. 


little, 


less, lesser, 


least. 


much, many, 


more, 


most. 


far, 


farther, 


farthest. 




further, 


furthest. 




well (in health), 


better, 






old, 


older, elder, 


oldest, eldest. 



75. The Comparative Degree is used to compare but 
tzvo persons or things. 

Examples : This is my elder sister. 

My sister is older than yours. 
Grace was the eldest of the four daugh- 
ters. 
Here is my oldest dress. 
Notice that elder is used in speaking of persons. 
The Superlative Degree is used to compare one per- 
son or thing with more than two persons or things. 

Examples: Robert is the tallest of the three boys. 
She is the brightest pupil in her class. 
This is the most wonderful storm I ever 
saw. 

76. A few adjectives add most to form the superla- 
tive. 



54 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



Positive. 

hind, 

south, 


Comparative. 

hinder, 

more southern, 


Superlative. 

hindmost. 

southernmost. 


east, eastern, 


more eastern, 


easternmost. 


zvest, western, 
north, northern, 


more western, 
more northern, 


westernmost, 
northernmost. 


top, 




topmost. 

inmost. 

foremost. 

nethermost. 

cndmost. 

uppermost. 

outmost. 

outermost, 


inner, 

former, 

nether, 








up (adverb), 
out (adverb), 


upper, 

outer (utter), 






utmost 

(uttermost). 



Next is the superlative of nigh. 
. Adjectives which possess an Absolute quality are 
not compared. 

Example: perfect, present, rectangular, vertical, 
nautical, perpendicular, single, universal, infinite, etc. 

77. A noun may be described or limited by more than 
one adjective. 

Example: ripe red cherry; pretty green leaves, etc. 

78. Exercise: Compare each of the following adjec- 
tives : calm, jolly, hard, light, dim, ripe, unusual, mag- 
nificent, thoughtful, lovely, sensitive, energetic, stupid, 
intense, sad, mad, proud. 

Give two comparisons where possible. 



Adverbs 55 



CHAPTER VI. 

Adverbs. 

79. An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an ad- 
jective or another adverb. 

Examples : The man acted quickly. 
She went suddenly. 
The statesman was highly honored. 
He recovered very rapidly. 

80. There are four kinds of adverbs. 

(1) Adverbs of Manner answer the question "How?" 
They modify verbs or adjectives, sometimes adverbs. 

Examples : They marched to the front bravely. 
They were happily married. 
She bore her affliction silently and cour- 
ageously. 

(2) Adverbs of Time answer the question "When?" 
Examples : The ship is due to-day. 

I have not seen him lately. 
Are you ready now? 
I will soon be ready. 

(3) Adverbs of Place answer the question "Where?" 
Examples: There is my son. 

She came very near. 

Yonder lies the city of Verdun. 

Will you come here, please? 

(4) Adverbs of Degree answer the question "To 

what extent?" 
Examples: She is exceedingly pretty. 
I liked her very much. 
She is rather superstitious. 
That is absolutely false. 



56 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

81. Adverbs which have the same form as adjectives: 
Examples : right, wrong, late, early, quick, hard, 

slow, well, much, little, deep, just, straight, low, loud, 
ill, close, etc. 

EXERCISE : Use each of the above words in sen- 
tences as (1) adjectives; (2) as adverbs. 

82. RELATIVE ADVERBS connect dependent (sub- 
ordinate) clauses with independent (co-ordinate) clauses, 

In this way they resemble relative pronouns. 
Examples: The town where I live has a population 
of ten thousand. 
They came after I had gone. 
I was ill when I was in France. 
The most common relative adverbs are : — where, when, 
whence, as, while, before, after, till, until, since, how, 
whenever, wherever, why, whither. 

83. EXERCISE : Write sentences containing each of 
the above relative adverbs and describe in ivJiat way they 
resemble relative pronouns. 

84. AN INTERROGATIVE ADVERB introduces a 
question. 

Where, when, whither, whence, hozv, why, etc., may 
be used as Interrogative adverbs. 

Examples: How do you like this climate? 

Where did she spend the summer? 
When were they in Paris? 
Why did you exclaim? 
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

85. Adverbs Have a Positive, Comparative and 
Superlative degree. Some adverbs are compared by 
means of the endings er and est. 



Adverbs 



57 



Examples : early, earlier, earliest, 
near, nearer, nearest, 
soon, sooner, soonest, 
often, oftener (more often), oftenest 

(most often), 
fast, faster, fastest, 
quick, quicker, quickest. 
Exercise : Compare each of the following adverbs : 
cheap, dear, hard, high, low, long, slow, deep. 

86. Most adverbs are compared by means of more 
and most. 

Examples : bravely, more bravely, most bravely, 
eagerly, more eagerly, most eagerly, 
promptly, more promptly, most promptly, 
rapidly, more rapidly, most rapidly. 

87. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
well, better, best. 

much, more, most. 

little, less, least. 

late, later, latest, last. 

ill (badly), tuorse, worst. 

nigh, nigher, nighest, next. 

far, farther, farthest. 

forth, further, furthest. 

88. Adverbs which are Absolute in quality do not 
admit of comparison. 

Examples: nozv, then, here, when, where, how, 
zvhence, etc. 



58 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



CHAPTER VII. 
Verbs. 

89. A Verb is a word that asserts an action, state or 
condition about a person, place or thing. 

Most verbs express action; some verbs only express 
state or condition, as, — 

I played golf this morning. 
(Action) He passed all of his examinations. 

We motored through the White Mountains. 
(State or He cherishes her memory. 
Condition) The house stands apart from the others. 
Soldiers zvear a uniform. 

90. A Verb-Phrase is a group of words that is used 
as a verb. 

Examples: She is sending her mother a letter. 
I will look you up when I arrive. 
They have telephoned me to start now. 
We must call there to-morrow. 
When certain verbs are used to make verb-phrases, 
they are called Auxiliary verbs because they help other 
verbs to express action or state. The auxiliary verbs 
are, — is, are, zvas, zvere, may, can, might, must, shall, 
will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. 

The auxiliary verb is sometimes separated from the 
rest of the verb, as, — 

I shall always remember your kindness. 

He was nearly run over. 

The children were suddenly awakened. 



Verbs 59 

91. Verbs are either TRANSITIVE OR INTRAN- 
SITIVE. 

A transitive verb is a verb which is followed by a 
substantive denoting that which receives the action or 
is produced by it. All other verbs are called intran- 
sitive. 

The substantive which completes the meaning of a 
transitive verb is called its direct object. 

Intransitive verbs then do not take objects. 

Examples of transitive and intransitive verbs. 

Transitive (with objects). 
We caught ten trout. 
She found her purse. 
They have discovered a new land. 
Time causes changes. 

Intransitive (without objects). 
The horse trotted away. 
The sun feels warm. 
The seniors debate to-day. 
She stared at me. 

92. A verb which is transitive in one sense may be 
intransitive in another. 

Examples: 

Transitive. 
They feel her influence. 
Jane dances the Russian Dances. 
They spoke French at the table. 
Baby sings her little songs every night. 



60 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Intransitive. 
I feel relieved. 
She dances very well. 
He spoke too quickly. 
Baby sings sweetly. 

THE COPULATIVE VERBS. 

93. The verb is, in all its forms, and many other 
verbs, form what is called the Copula, or link, between 
the subject, predicate nominative or predicate adjective. 

Examples : Alice is my cousin. 

George was a happy boy. 

The pansies look thrifty. 

He becomes Mayor to-morrow. 

She acts queer. 

They seem perplexed. 
In the above sentences, name all the predicate nomina- 
tives and predicate adjectives. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS— TENSE. 

94. Verbs are inflected to show Time or Tense. 
The tenses of a verb indicate Present, Past and Future 

time. These tenses are called the Simple tenses. 
Examples of Present tense: 

I live near the village. 

The whistle blows. 

The Adriatic arrives this week. 
Examples of the Past tense (Imperfect). 

I lived near the village. 

The whistle blew. 

The Adriatic arrived this morning. 



Verbs 61 

Examples of Future tense. 

I shall live near the village. 

The whistle will blow. 

The Adriatic will arrive this week. 

95. WEAK VERBS AND STRONG VERBS. 

Regular verbs are verbs which form their past tense 
by adding ed, d, or t to the present tense; such verbs 
are often called Weak verbs. All other verbs are 
irregular verbs and are often called Strong verbs. 

Examples: ask, asked; talk, talked; like, liked; 
mean, meant; deal, dealt; send, sent; (When the past 
tense is formed by adding t, a change in spelling often 
occurs, as, — send, sent; feel, felt; dwell, dwelt, etc.) 

Irregular verbs often form the past tense without the 
addition of an ending, and merely changing a vowel of 
the present. 

Examples: run, ran; swim, swam; choose, chose; 
sing, sang; etc. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 
Verbs have Person and Number. 

Person. 
The first person denotes the speaker; the second per- 
son denotes the person spoken to; the third person de- 
notes the person or thing spoken of. 

Number. 

The singular number denotes a single person or thing. 

The plural number denotes more than one person or 
thing. 

Rule : A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 



62 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

97. VERBS ARE INFLECTED to show person and 
number. 



Examples: 




Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


I talk. 


We talk. 


Thou talk-est. 


You talk. 


He, she, it talk-s. 


They talk. 



Past Tense (Imperfect). 
Singular. Plural. 

I talked. We talked. 

Thou talkcd-st. You talked. 

He, she, it talked. They talked. 

98. It is readily observed from the above example that 
person and number are shown by (1) the subject, (2) 
by certain endings. 

These endings are called Personal Endings. 

PERSONAL ENDINGS. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) No ending. (1) No ending. 

(2) est,-st. (2) " 

(3) s. (3) " - 

Past Tense (Imperfect). 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) No ending. (1) No ending. 

(2) est,-st. (2) " " 

(3) No ending. (3) " 



Verbs 63 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

99. Impersonal verbs are verbs which have no per- 
son for subject. The subject of thought stands in the 
predicate. 

Examples : It is very warm to-day. 
It thunders. 
It is she. 

It was New Year's Day, 1919. 
In the first two cases, it, the neuter pronoun, is used 
as subject; there is no definite subject. 

In the third and fourth cases, it is called an (expletive) 
as the real subject of thought stands in the predicate. 

100. RULES FOR THE USE OF NUMBER. 

(1) A compound subject with and, usually takes a 
plural verb. 

Examples: My father and mother sail to-day. 
Jack and Chad are chums. 

(2) A compound subject with and, expressing a sin- 
gle idea, takes a verb in the singular. 

Examples : The thunder and lightning is terrific. 
This bread, and butter tastes good. 

(3) A compound subject with or or nor takes a 
singular verb if each substantive is singular. 

Examples: Either he or she is mistaken. 

Neither the President nor the Governor 
speaks at the conference to-morrow. 

(4) When the substantives connected by or or nor 
are of different number and person, the verb agrees with 
the nearer. 



64 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Examples : Either you or she is mistaken. 
Neither you nor / was called. 
Neither Dick nor we zvere there. 
The following is considered better form : 
Either you are mistaken, or she is. 
Neither of us was called. 
Dick was not there ; neither were we. 

(5) Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning 
usually take a singular verb. 

Examples: Physics is a useful study. 
Athletics is greatly advised. 
Measles is epidemic in our town. 

(6) A Collective noun (33) sometimes takes a 
singuar and sometimes a plural verb. 

When persons or things are considered as individuals, 
the plural is used ; when they are regarded as a unit 
or whole, the singular is used. 
Example: 

The Triangle Club give their annual play to-mor- 
row evening. (Each member considered as 
individuals.) 
The Triangle Club is composed of Twenty mem- 
bers. (Here the members are thought of as 
a unit.) 
The American Fleet welcome the President. 

(Each member of the fleet considered.) 
The American Fleet sails for France on Tuesday. 
(Fleet considered as a whole.) 

101. Notice the verbs in each of the following sen- 
tences : 



Verbs 65 

(1) The number of troops on that ship is two thou- 
sand. 
A number of seats are reserved. 
Half of a dollar is fifty cents. 
Half of the troops were Americans. 
The second part of the story is more interesting. 
Part of his ideas were good. 

THE FUTURE TENSE. 

102. The Future Tense denotes future time. 

Future Tense (Declarative). 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall talk. We shall talk. 

Thou wilt talk. You will talk. 

He, she, it will talk. They will talk. 

Future Tense (Interrogative). 

Singular. Plural. 

Shall I talk? Shall we talk? 

Shalt thou talk? Shall you talk? 

Will he, she, it talk? Will they talk? 

What auxiliary verbs are used in the future tense? 

What differences are there in the Interrogative? 

103. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. 

(1) Shall in the first person, declarative and inter- 
rogative, denotes simple futurity. 

Examples : I shall leave for the West to-night. 

I shall be glad to see you. 

We shall miss you very much. 

We shall arrive in the morning. 



66 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

(2) Will in the first person denotes determination, 
a promise, a threat, etc. 

Examples: I will enforce the law. 

I will give you ten dollars. 
I will punish you if you do that again. 
We will demand their presence. 
We will send them a cable. 
We will throw down our hands if they 
do not play fair. 

(3) In the second person, will is used when merely 
future time is implied, i. e., in assertions. 

Examples: You will fall if you are not careful. 
You will soon see land. 
You will have plenty of time. 

(4) In the second person in questions, the same aux- 
iliary is used that is expected in the answer. 

Examples: Shall you be free next week? (I shall.) 
Shall you see them again? (I shall.) 
Shall you gain or lose in this matter? 

(I shall.) 
Will you dine with us this evening? (I 

will.) 
Will you let me know right away? (I 

will.) 
Will you take the message? (I will.) 

(5) Shall in the second person declarative indicates 
determination, a promise, a threat or a command. 

Examples: "Thou shalt not commit adultery." 
You shall have another turn. 
You shall regret your actions. 
You shall judge for yourself. 



Verbs 67 

(6) In the third person declarative, will is used to de- 
note only future time. 

Examples: She will be there at eight o'clock. 
He will ask no questions. 
The clouds will soon disappear and the 
sun will shine. 

(7) Shall is used in the third person declarative 
when there is an implied command, threat, promise or 
determination. 

Examples : He shall ask an apology. 

They shall repent of their sins. 
She shall have three chances. 
He shall not have his own way. 

(8) In the third person interrogative, the same 
auxiliary is used that is expected in the answer. 

Examples: Shall Peace Terms be made now? 
Shall they repeat this exercise? 
Will the boys arrive in time to sing? 
Will the car run now ? 

104. EXERCISE : In each of the sentences under 
shall and zvill, tell what idea is expressed. Be able to give 
each rule, and, write two original sentences under each 
head. 

105. SHOULD AND WOULD. 

Should is the past tense of shall and would is the 
past tense of will. Their rules, therefore, are similar. 

Examples: In simple assertions, when there is no 
idea of will or determination on the part of the speaker, 
should is used in the first person, as, — 



68 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

(1) I should be lonely if you went away. 
I should understand the situation. 

I should prefer your coming here. 
We should bear our afflictions bravely. 
We should be glad to meet their terms. 
I zvould accept if I were asked. 
I zvould spend all my money to save him. 
We zvould leave to-day if we could. 
We zvould rather dance than sing. 

(2) In the first person interrogative, should is used. 
Examples: Should I send her a card? 

Should I lose the train if I stayed ten 

minutes longer? 
Should we be happy always? • 
Should we offer them better terms? 

(3) Should is used in the second and third persons 
to denote the zvill of the speaker. 

Examples : You should think before you speak. 
You should be punished severely. 
He should know better than to do that. 
Such a condition should not exist. 

(4) In the second person interrogative should or 
would is used according to what auxiliary is expected 
in the answer. 

Examples: Should you be lonely if I went away? 

(I should.) 
Should you remember if I told you? 

(I should.) 
Should you think that a fair price? (I 

should.) 



Verbs 69 

Would you start now if I were you? 

(I would.) 
Would you send them another bill? (I 

would.) 

Would you study French or Spanish? 

(I would.) 

Note. — It will be readily observed here that these 

auxiliaries are used in the same manner as Shall and 

Will; would you is used in asking advice or permission. 

EXERCISE : Write a sentence for the use of should 

and would corresponding to the use of shall and will for 

each of the three persons, declarative and interrogative. 

COMPLETE OR PERFECT TENSES. 

106. The complete or perfect tenses, also called 
compound tenses, are: (1) the Present Perfect (Per- 
fect) tense which denotes that the action of the verb is 
complete at the time of speaking. 

Example: I have finished my lesson. (Action com- 
plete at the present time.) She has spoken well. (Action 
complete at the present time.) 

(2) The Past Perfect (Pluperfect) which denotes 
that the action was completed at some time in the past. 

Example: He had finished his lesson in the morning. 
(Action completed in past time.) They had fought four 
hours. (Action completed in past time.) 

(3) The Future Perfect tense denotes that the 
action will be completed at some future time. 

Examples : When I see you again, I shall have heard 
from John. (Action completed at 
some future time.) 



70 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

They will have fought four years to- 
morrow. (Action completed at some 
future time.) 

107. VOICE OF VERBS. 

Voice is that property of verbs which indicates 
whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 
There are two voices, Active and Passive. 
The subject of the verb in the active voice, denotes 
the person or thing performing the action. 
Examples: The crew sent out a signal. 
/ mailed your letter. 
The men caught a shark. 
The subject of the verb in the passive voice, denotes 
the person or thing acted upon. 

Examples : The crczv was rescued by the flagship, 
C4. 
Your letter was mailed by me. 
The shark zvas caught by the men. 

108. MOOD OF VERBS. 

The Mood of verbs shows the manner in which the 
action or state is expressed. 
There are three moods: 

(1) The Indicative mood is the mood of simple 
assertions or interrogations; it is sometimes used in 
other constructions as well. 

(2) The Imperative mood is the mood of commands 
or requests. 

(3) The Subjunctive mood is the mood of wishes, 
exhortations, conditions, etc. 



Verbs 71 

Examples: The Ocean is calm. (Indicative mood.) 
Is the Ocean calm? (Indicative mood.) 

Note. — The Indicative is used in all statements, or 
questions which concern matters of fact; it is also used 
in matters of command, request, desire, doubt, supposi- 
tion or concession. 

Examples : They shall return here at once. (Com- 
mand. ) 

Will you grant me a leave of absence? 
(Request.) 

I hope that you will have a pleasant 
time. (Desire.) 

I fear that the ship is lost. (Doubt.) 

If the shell bursts, the fight is on. (Sup- 
position.) 

Though they are our neighbors, we do 
not see them very often. (Conces- 
sion.) 

The Indicative is also used in exclamations: 
How pretty she is! 
What a lovely picture that makes ! 

109. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The Imperative mood is the mood of commands or 
requests. 

Examples: Ring the bell. 

Repeat this exercise. 
Turn to the right. 
Knock again. 
Come ! 



72 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

110. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

(For the uses of the subjunctive, see 145, 164, 173, 
174, 182.) 

111. THE PARTICIPLE. 

The Participle is a form of the verb without sub- 
ject, resembling an adjective, and expressing action or 
state by limiting or describing a substantive. 

There are three participles : Present, Past and Per- 
fect. 

The Present Participle ends in ing. It describes 
some action as taking place at the same time as some 
other. 

Examples: Running down the hill, he stumbled and 
fell. 
Obeying the Captain's order, the com- 
pany retreated. 
Their house is situated on a terrace over- 
looking the Hudson River. 

In the first sentence above, the action expressed by 
the participle, ''running," takes place at the same time 
as the action expressed by the compound predicate, 
"stumbled and fell." 

In the second sentence the action expressed by the 
participle, "obeying," is a little previous to that expressed 
by the verb "retreated." 

In the third sentence, the participle, "overlooking," 
expresses the state of the "house." 

EXERCISE: Write three sentences containing present 
participles similar to the above and explain the action of 
each. 



Verbs 



73 



112. THE PAST PARTICIPLE of a regular or weak 
verb ends in ed, d or t. It has the same form as the 

PAST TENSE. 



Examples: 

Past Tense. 
I locked the door. 
He asked a question. 
She washed the windows. 
We collected the money. 



Past Participle. 
The door is locked. 
The question is asked. 
The windows are washed. 
The money is collected. 



113. (The endings of the past participle of irregular 
or strong verbs will be taken up under "Principal parts 
of irregular verbs.") 



114. THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE, also known as 
the Phrasal Perfect, is formed by prefixing "having" 
to the Past Participle. 

The Passive Phrasal Perfect is formed by prefix- 
ing "having been" to the Past Participle. 

Examples : 

Active. 

Having locked the door, 
I went out. 

Having asked a question, 
he wrote down the reply. 

Having washed the win- 
dows, she went away. 

Having collected the 
money, we were happy. 



Passive. 

Having been locked, the 
door could not be opened. 

The question, having been 
asked, was not repeated. 

Having been washed, the 
windows glistened. 

Having been collected, 
the monev was divided. 



74 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

115. VERBAL NOUNS ENDING IN ING. 
Verbal nouns must not be confused with participles. 
Examples: Speaking in French, he made a great 

impression. (Participle modifying 

the pronoun "he.") 
Speaking in school is advantageous to the 

pupil. (Verbal noun used as subject 
of the verb "is.") 
They encourage speaking at this school. 

(Verbal noun used as direct object 

of "encourage.") 
Grace is good at speaking. 

(Verbal noun used as object of the 

preposition "at.") 

116. EXERCISE: Write four sentences containing 
the past tense. Change them so that they will be sen- 
tences containing the past participle. (Regular verbs 
only.) 

Write four sentences containing the phrasal perfect, 
active. Change them so that they will be the phrasal 
perfect, passive. 

Show the difference between verbal nouns and par- 
ticiples. Write tzvo sentences containing verbal nouns 
as (1) subject; (2) as direct object; (3) as direct ob- 
ject of prepositions.) 

117. THE INFINITIVE. 

The Infinitive is a form of the verb, without person 
or number, and resembling a noun. The preposition, 
"to," which usually precedes it, is called the "sign of the 
infinitive." 



Verbs 75 

The Infinitive has two tenses: present and perfect, 
(Past). 

118. THE PRESENT Infinitive is the simplest 

FORM. 

Examples : to teach, to send, to look, to trust, etc. 

The Perfect Infinitive (Past) is formed by prefixing 
the present infinitive of the auxiliary verb, have, to the) 
past participle. 

Examples : to have taught ; to have sent ; to have 
looked; to have trusted, etc. 

119. USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

(1) As subject. 

To swim is good exercise. 
To borrow is a bad habit. 
To play well is an accomplishment. 

(2) As predicate nominative. 

His idea is to start Monday. 
Our usual way is to walk along the shore. 
The custom is to remain seated during the pre- 
lude. 
To retreat now is to acknowledge defeat. 

(Here we have infinitive subject and infini- 
tive predicate nominative.) 

(3) As OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. 

They are about to leave for London. 

There was nothing to do but dance, (to under- 
stood) 

We agree to everything except run. (to under- 
stood) 



76 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

(4) As modifier of adjective. (Adverbial modi- 

fiers.) 
They were anxious to go. 

We are proud to acknozvledge it. 
I shall be glad to see you. 

(5) As modifier of nouns. (Adjective modifiers.) 

His ambition to rise is evident. 
Their desire to help the cause is keenly appre- 
ciated. 

120. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. 

An Infinitive may complete the meaning of the verb. 
Examples: We all wish to thank you. 

The shells began to burst. 

We had to fight hand to hand. 

The horses started to run. 

121. An Infinitive may express purpose. 
Examples: He went away to fight for his country. 

They ran to catch the train. 

I listened to hear what was the matter. 

She sang to please the soldiers. 

122. THE CONJUGATION OF A VERB. 

The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation. 
To conjugate a verb is to inflect it. (35) 

Conjugation of the Verb TO BE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) I am. We are. 

(2) Thou art. You are. 

(3) He, she, it is. They are. 



Verbs 77 



Past Tense. (Imperfect). 

(1) I was. We were. 

(2) Thou wast. You were. 

(3) He, she, it was. They were. 

Future Tense. 

(1) I shall be. We shall be. 

(2) Thou wilt be. You will be. 

(3) He, she, it will be. They will be. 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

(1) I have been. We have been. 

(2) Thou hast been. You have been. 

(3) He, she, it has been. They have been. 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) I had been. We had been. 

(2) Thou hadst been. You had been. 

(3) He, she, it had been. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

(1) I shall have been. We shall have been. 

(2) Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 

(3) He, she, it will have been. They will have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE 


MOOD. 


Present Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


(1) If I be. 




If we be. 


(2) If thou be. 




If you be. 


(3) If he, she, it be. 




If they be, 



78 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Past Tense. (Imperfect).* 

(1) If I were. If we were. 

(2) If thou wert. If you were. 

(3) If he, she, it were. If they were. 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

(1) If I have been. If we have been. 

(2) If thou have been. If you have been. 

(3) If he, she, it have been. If they have been. 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) If I had been. If we had been. 

(2) If thou hadst been. If you had been. 

(3) If he, she, it had been. If they had been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular and Plural. 

Be thou or you. 

INFINITIVE. 
Present, to be. Perfect, to have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, being. Past, been. Perfect. (Phrasal Per- 
fect), having been. 

123. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, HEAR. 
Active Voice. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) I hear. We hear. 

(2) Thou hearest, (you hear). You hear. 

(3) He, she, it hears. They hear. 



Verbs 79 

Past Tense. (Imperfect). 

(1) I heard. We heard. 

(2) Thou heardst. (You heard) You heard. 

(3) He, she, it heard. They heard. 

Future Tense. 

(1) I shall hear. We shall hear. 

(2) Thou wilt hear. (You will hear) You will hear. 

(3) He, she, it will hear. They will hear. 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

(1) I have heard. We have heard. 

(2) Thou hast heard. (You You have heard. 

have heard) 

(3) He, she, it has heard. They have heard. 

Pluferfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) I had heard. We had heard. 

(2) Thou hadst heard. (You You had heard. 

had heard) 

(3) He, she, it had heard. They had heard. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

(1) I shall have heard. We shall have heard. 

(2) Thou wilt have heard. (You You will have heard. 

will have heard) 

(3) He, she, it will have heard. They will have heard. 

Note. — The word "if" has no part in the conjuga- 
tion ; there are more "if" clauses in the subjunctive mood 
than in any other; for this reason it is added. 



80 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

124. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) If I hear. If we hear. 

(2) If thou hear. (If you hear) If you hear.^ 

(3) If he, she, it hear. If they hear. 

Past Tense. (Imperfect). 

(1) If I heard. If we heard. 

(2) If thou heard. (If you If you heard. 

heard) 

(3) If he, she, it heard. If they heard. 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

(1) If I have heard. If we have heard. 

(2) If thou have heard. (If If you have heard. 

you have heard) 

(3) If he, she, it have heard. If they have heard. 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) If I had heard. If we had heard. 

(2) If thou hadst heard. (If If you had heard. 

you had heard) 

(3) If he, she, it had heard. If they had heard. 

125. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular and Plural 
Hear thou or you. 

126. INFINITIVE. 

Present. Perfect. 

To hear. To have heard. 



Verbs 81 

127. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Past. Perfect. (Phrasal Perfect). 

Hearing. Heard. Having heard. 

128. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

(1) I am heard. We are heard. 

(2) Thou art heard. (You You are heard. 

are heard) 

(3) He, she, it is heard. They are heard. 

Past Tense. (Imperfect). 

(1) I was heard. We were heard. 

(2) Thou wast heard. (You You were heard. 

were heard) 

(3) He, she, it was heard. They were heard. 

Future Tense. 

(1) I shall be heard. We shall be heard. 

(2) Thou wilt be heard. (You You will be heard. 

will be heard) 

(3) He, she, it will be heard. They will be heard. 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

(1) I have been heard. We have been heard. 

(2) Thou hast been heard. You have been heard. 

(You have been heard) 

(3) He, she, it has been heard. They have been heard. 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) I had been heard. We had been heard. 

(2) Thou hadst been heard. You had been heard. 

(You had been heard) 

(3) He, she, it had been heard. They had been heard. 



82 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Future Perfect Tense. 

(1) I shall have been heard. We shall have been 

heard. 

(2) Thou wilt have been heard. You will have been 

(You will have been heard) heard. 

(3) He, she, it will have been They will have been 

heard. heard. 

129. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) If I be heard. If we be heard. 

(2) If thou be heard. (If you If you be heard. 

be heard) 

(3) If he, she, it be heard. If they be heard. 

Past Tense. (Imperfect). 

(1) If I were heard. If we were heard. 

(2) If thou wert heard. (If you If you were heard. 

were heard) 

(3) If he, she, it were heard. If they were heard. 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

(1) If I have been heard. If we have been heard. 

(2) If thou have been heard. If you have been heard. 

(If you have been heard) 

(3) If he, she, it have been If they have been heard. 

heard. 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) If I had been heard. If we had been heard. 

(2) If thou hadst been heard. If you had been heard. 

(If you had been heard) 

(3) If he, she, it had been If they had been heard. 

heard. 



Verbs 83 



130. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular and Plural. 

Be thou or you heard. 


131. 




INFINITIVE. 


Present. 


Perfect. (Past). 


To be 


heard. 


To have been heard. 



132. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Past. Perfect. (Phrasal Perfect). 

Being heard. Heard. Having been heard. 

133. PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION. 

The Progressive form of a tense represents the action 
or state of the verb as going on or continuing at the time 
referred to. It is a verb-phrase composed of some form 
of the verb to be, added to the present participle of the 
main verb. 

The following conjugation is a synopsis of the irregu- 
lar verb, to find, in the first person, singular number, 
active and passive voice. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, ACTIVE VOICE. 
Present. I find, I do find, I am finding. 
Past. (Imperfect). I found, I did find, I was finding. 
Future. I shall find, I shall be finding. 
Perfect. (Present Perfect). I found, I have found, I 

have been finding. 
Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). I had found, I had been 

finding. 
Future Perfect. I shall have found, I shall have been 

finding. 



84 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
Present. I am found, I am being found. 
Past. (Imperfect). I> was found, I was being found. 
Future. I shall be found. 
Perfect. (Present Perfect). I was found, I have been 

found. 
Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). I had been found. 
Future Perfect. I shall have been found. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, ACTIVE VOICE. 
Present. I find, I be finding. 
Past. (Imperfect). I found, I were finding. 
Perfect. (Present Perfect). I have found, I have been 

finding. 
Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). I had found, I had been 

finding. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Present. I be found, I be being found. 
Past. (Imperfect). I were found, I zuere being found. 
Perfect. (Present Perfect). I have been found. 
Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). I had been found. 

134. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Active Voice. 
Present Tense, find, do find, be finding, do be finding. 

Passive Voice. 
Present Tense, do be found, be found. 

135. INFINITIVES. 

Active. 
Present, to find, to be finding. 
Perfect, to have found, to have been finding. 
Future, to be about to find, to be about to be finding. 



Verbs 85 

Passive. 
Present, to be found. 
Perfect, to have been found. 
Future, to be about to be found. 

136. PARTICIPLES. 

Active. Passive. 

Present, finding. being found. 

Past, found. found. 

Phrasal Perfect, having found, having been found. 
Note. — The Gerund has the same forms as the par- 
ticiple, but its use in the sentence is different. 

Examples : Gerund, — Praying for peace is their 
only desire. (Substantive and verb.) 
Participle, — Praying for peace, the sol- 
dier knelt beside the ruined altar. 
(Adjective and verb.) 
The Gerund is the same as the Verbal Noun. 

137. Compare the Progressive Conjugation with each 
of the others given. Complete the entire conjugation of 
the verb "find" in the progressive form. 

138. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 

The Principal Parts of a verb are (1) the first per- 
son singular of the present tense, (2) the first person 
singular of the past tense, (3) the past participle. 
Examples. 
Present. Past. Fast Participle. 

talk, talked, talked, 

look, looked, looked, 

think, thought, thought, 

find, found, found, 

sink, sank, sank, 

make, made, made. 



86 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

It has been learned that the past participle of 
regular or weak verbs ends in ed, d or t. The forms 
of irregular verbs must be memorized as there is no 
regular rule. The proper form of any past participle 
will always be the verb used after "I have." 

The following is a list of the principal parts of regu- 
lar and irregular verbs. The verbs in italics are regular ; 
all others are irregular. 



Present 


Tense 


Past 


Tense. 


Past Participle. 


abide, 




abode, 




abode. 


arise, 




arose, 




arisen. 


awake, 




awoke, 


(awaked] 


1 azvaked. 


bear, (carry) 


bore, 




borne, born. 


(When "bear" means 


to bring 


forth, "born" is 






the past part.) 




beat, 




beat, 




beaten. 


beget, 




begot, 
begat, 




begotten, 
begot. 


begin, 




began, 




begun. 


behold, 




beheld, 




beheld. 


bid, 




bade, 




bidden. 


bid, 




bid, 




bid. 


bite, 




bit, 




bitten. 


bleed, 




bled, 




bled. 


blow, 




blew, 




blown. 


breed, 




bred, 




bred. 


bring, 




brought, 




brought. 


build, 




built, 




built. 


buy, 




bought, 




bought. 


cast, 




cast, 




cast. 


catch, 




caught, 




caught. 



Verbs 



87 



Present Tense. Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


chide, 


chid, 


chidden. 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


come, 


came, 


come. 


cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


dig, 


dug, 


dug. 


draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 


forsake, 


. forsook, 


forsaken. 


freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


get, 


got, 


got. 


give, 


gave, 


given. 


go, 


went, 


gone. 


grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


have, 


had, 


had. 


hear, 


heard, 


heard. 



Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



Present Tense. 


Past 


Tense. 


Past Participle. 


hide, 


hid, 




hidden. 


hold, 


held, 




held. 


keep, 


kept, 




kept. 


know, 


knew, 




known. 


lay, 


laid, 




laid. 


lead, 


led, 




led. 


learn, 


learned, 




learned, learnt. 


leave, 


left, 




left. 


lend, 


lent, 




lent. 


lie, (recline) 


lay, 




lain. 


light, 


lighted or lit, 


lighted or lit. 


make. 


made, 




made. 


mean, 


meant, 




meant. 


ride, 


rode, 




ridden. 


ring, 


rang, 




rung. 


rise, 


rose, 




risen. 


run, 


ran, 




run. 


say, 


said, 




said. 


see, 


saw, 




seen. 


shake, 


shook, 




shaken. 


shine, 


shone, 




shone. 


shoe, 


shod, 




shod. 


show, 


showed, 




shown. 


shrink, 


shrank, 




shrunk. 


sing, 


sang, 




sung. 


sleep, 


slept, 




slept. 


smite, 


smote, 




smitten. 


speak, 


spoke, 




spoken. 


spin, 


spun, 




spun. 


spring, 


sprang, 




sprung. 


stave, 


stove, staved, 


stove, staved. 



Verbs 



89 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


steal, 


stole, 




stolen. 


sting, 


stung, 




stung. 


strew, 


strewed, 




strewn. 


swear, 


swore, 




sworn. 


swim, 


swam, 




swum. 


swing, 


swung, 




swung. 


take, 


took, 




taken. 


teach, 


taught, 




taught. 


tear, 


tore, 




torn. 


tell, 


told, 




told. 


throw, 


threw, 




thrown. 


tread, 


trod, 




trodden. 


wake, 


woke, zvaked, 


woke, zvaked. 


wear, 


wore, 




• worn. 


weave, 


wove, 




woven. 


write, 


wrote, 




written. 



Note. — This is merely a list of a few regular and 
irregular verbs. Verbs such as bring, feed, lay, kneel, 
make, shoe, tell, etc., are called Irregular Weak Verbs. 



There is no decided rule for the formation of the 
past tense or past participle of an irregular verb. The 
following changes, however, frequently appear, and will 
offer a guide. 

(1) Many irregular verbs form their past tense by 
changing the vowel of the present tense, as, — choose, 
chose, run, ran, etc. 

(2) The past participle, if it has a suffix, often ends 
in en or n, as, — drive, drove, driven; speak, spoke, 
spoken; arise, arose, arisen, etc. 



90 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

(3) The past participle may have the principal vowel 
the same as that of the root form or present tense, as, — 
burst, burst, burst, etc. 

Many irregularities occur among both strong and weak 
verbs and the best way to learn them is to memorise as 
many as possible. 

The following verbs may have ed, d or t in the past 
tense and past participle, as, — dreamed, dreamt; kneeled, 
knelt; knit, knitted; burned, burnt; smelled, smelt; 
learned, learnt; blessed, blest; sped, speeded; curst, 
cursed; dressed, drest; girded, girt; penned, pent. 

Some verbs have what is known as archaic forms for 
their past participle, as, — spake, gat, drave, bended, 
builded, etc. 

139. EXERCISE. Give the principal parts of each 
of the following verbs and tell to what class they belong : 
bend, beseech, bite, break, grind, hang, hit, lose, meet, 
pay, seek, sell, send, shake, sink, spend, spread, stand, 
stride, strive, think, wind. 

Give a synopsis of the verb call, in the third person, 
singular, active and passive. 

Give a synopsis of the verb see, in the first person, 
plural, active and passive. 

Conjugate the following verbs : come, go, do, lie, lay, 
ride, ask, learn, teach, take, tear, write, swim, run. 

140. USES OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

The birds ate the corn. The corn was eaten by the 

birds. 



Verbs 91 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

The boys found a nest. A nest was found by the 

boys. 
James sent a telegram. A telegram was sent by 

James. 
The tenor sang a solo. A solo was sung by the 

tenor. 
It will be seen in these sentences that in changing 
from the active to the passive voice, the object of the 
active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the 
subject of the active verb becomes in the passive the 
object of the preposition by which modifies the verb, 
i. e., — it has the property of an adverb. 

141. Intransitive verbs are commonly used in the 
active voice only. 

Examples: The lions roared. 
The wind blew. 
The child cried. 

142. Active Voice. Passive Voice. 
We called her a friend. She was called a friend. 
The boys named Jack the Jack was named captain 

captain. by the boys. 

We thought him nervous. He was thought nervous. 
Explain all the changes in the above sentences. 

143. Active Voice. Passive Voice. 
The Browns sold me this This house was sold me 

house. by the Browns. 

Her cousin gave her a ring. A ring was given her by 

her cousin. 
Explain the differences in each of these sentences. 



92 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

144. Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

(Retained Object.) 
We gave them another turn. They were given another 

turn. 
They allowed him some fruit. He was allowed some 

fruit. 
He told us his history. We were told his history. 

Explain, likewise, the changes in the above sentences. 

145. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (Mode) 

The Subjunctive is used to express a wish, or, a 
prayer. 

Examples : God forbid! 

Heaven help us! 

God bless you and keep you! 

O that I were king! 

Would that she were in this land ! 

May he please you always ! 

146. The subjunctive is used as a supposition after 
though and although. 

Examples: Though he be my enemy, I will pray 
for him. 
Although she were to ask me now, I 
should not answer. 

147. The subjunctive is used in conditions. 
Examples: Had I been there, I could have told you. 

If I were asked, I should tell the whole 

truth. 
If they be there or not, I will go anyway. 
He acts as if he were tired. 
It looks as though it were clearing. 



Verbs 93 

148. The subjunctive is used to express what would 
be, or, what would have been. 

Examples: It were wiser to start early. 

He had been clever had he discovered 
the ruse. 

149. The subjunctive is used after lest, until, that, 
etc. 

Examples : Beware lest he cheat you. 

Suppose we remain until she come. 
Prepare that they run not. 

150. The subjunctive in verb-phrases such as had 
better, had rather, had as lief, etc. 

Examples: I had better go to-day. 

She had rather go than stay. 
They had as lief remain. 

151. MODAL AUXILIARIES. 

Auxiliary verbs which form verb-phrases of ability, 
necessity, obligation or possibility are called Modal 
Auxiliaries. 

Such verb-phrases are called Potential Verb- 
Phrases. These verbs are may, can, must, might, could, 
zvould and should. 

Examples: You may ask permission. 
I can sail a boat. 
He must live his own life. 
That must be her father. 
She might say, "Yes." 
He could sing if they would allow him. 
I should like to see you. 
We should consider it a favor. 



94 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

152. THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Active Voice. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

(1) I may hear. We may hear. 

(2) Thou may st hear. You may hear. 

(3) He, she, it may hear. They may hear. 

Past Tense. 

(1) I might hear. We might hear. 

(2) Thou mightst hear. You might hear. 

(3) He, she, it might hear. They might hear. 

Present Tense. (Present Perfect). 

(1) I may have heard. We may have heard. 

(2) Thou mayst have heard. You may have heard. 

(3) He, she, it may have They may have heard. 

heard. 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

(1) I might have heard. We might have heard. 

(2) Thou mightst have heard. You might have heard. 

(3) He, she, it might have They might have heard. 

heard. 

Passive Voice. 

Present Tense. 

(1) I may be heard. We may be heard. 

(2) Thou mayst be heard. You may be heard. 

(3) He, she, it may be heard. They may be heard. 

Past Tense. 

(1) I might be heard. We might be heard. 

(2) 

(3) 



Verbs 95 

Perfect. (Present Perfect). 

( 1 ) I may have been heard. We may have been heard. 

(2) 

(3) 

Pluperfect. (Past Perfect). 

( 1 ) I might have been heard. We might have been heard. 

(2) 

(3) 

153. EXERCISE : Fill in the dotted spaces above. 
The verb, ought, also expresses obligation or pro- 
priety. 

Examples: You ought to know better. 

You ought to have known better. 
They ought to be punished. 
They ought to have been punished. 
Notice that "ought" with the present infinitive denotes 
present time; with the perfect infinitive it denotes past 
time. 

Had should not be used with ought as an auxiliary. 
She ought to go home; not, she had ought, etc. 

154. EXERCISE: Write a sentence in which can 
indicates possibility; one in which can indicates ability. 

Write a sentence in which may indicates permission. 
Write a sentence in which may indicates possibility. 
Write a sentence in which must indicates necessity. 
Write a sentence in which must indicates obligation. 
(Remember that could is the past tense of can.) 



96 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

155. PARSING A VERB. 

To Parse a Verb, the following points must be given : 

(1) Class-transitive or intransitive, complete or linking. 

(2) Principal parts. 

(3) Voice. 

(4) Mood. 

(5) Tense. 

(6) Person. 

(7) Number. 

(8) Subject. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Clauses. 

156. A Clause is a group of words in a sentence 
that contains subject and predicate. A sentence may 
have several clauses. 

Clauses are divided in three classes : Adjective, Ad- 
verbial and Noun Clauses. 

A subordinate clause is a clause that is used as a part 
of speech. 

An adjective clause is a subordinate (dependent) 
clause that modifies a noun or substantive. 

Adjective clauses may be introduced by (1) relative 
pronouns, or, (2) relative adverbs of time or place. 
Examples: A man that is always alert is successful. 
(An alert man.) 
The towns zvJicre there zvas destruction 
were visited first. (Devastated towns.) 
Days when the sun shines are wel- 
come. (Sunny days.) 



Clauses 97 

Which sentence contains the relative pronoun? 
Which sentence contains a relative adverb of time? 
Of place? 

157. An adverbial clause is a subordinate (depen- 
dent) clause that modifies a verb, or, serves as an 
adverbial modifier. 

Examples : They came while zve were at the table. 

(At dinner hour.) 
They spoke before we arrived. (In the 

morning.) 
We go abroad when summer comes. 

(Annually.) 

158. Adverbial clauses are also introduced by (1) 
subordinate conjunctions, (2) by relative or interroga- 
tive pronouns, (3) by relative adverbs. 

Examples : I will go because they urged me. 

We drove farther than we intended. 
(Adverbial clause introduced by the 
subordinate conjunction "than" and 
modifying the adverb "farther.") 

They are undecided which route is bet' 
ter. (Adverbial clause introduced by 
the interrogative adjective, "which" 
and modifying "undecided.") 

They are undecided which is better. 
(Adverbial clause introduced by the 
interrogative pronoun "which" and 
modifying "undecided.") 
In the first sentence, what does the subordinate con- 
junction, "because" modify? 



98 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

159. A clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 
clause. 

Noun clauses may be used as (1) subject; (2) apposi- 
tive; (3) direct object of a transitive verb; (4) predi- 
cate nominative. 

Examples: That she should have come surprised 
me. (Subject.) 
The fact that he was better encouraged 

them. (Apposition with "fact.") 
We know that the train is late. (Direct 

object of "know.") 
My desire is that zee make an effort. 
(Predicate nominative.) 
Noun clauses may be introduced by (1) subordinate 
conjunctions, (2) by interrogative pronouns, (3) by 
interrogative adverbs. 

EXERCISE: Write a sentence containing a noun 
clause introduced by each of the above (1), (2), (3). 

A noun clause is sometimes used as the object of a 
preposition. 

Examples: There was no excuse except that they 
zvere ill. 
There was no remark but that he was in 
difficulty. 
A noun clause may be in apposition with "it." 
Examples : It is true that the boys are safe. 

It was apparent that they had won. 
A noun clause may be used as the retained object of 
a passive verb. (144) 

Active Voice. 
They asked him if he could remain longer. 



Clauses 99 



Passive Voice. 
He was asked if he could remain longer. (Retained 
object.) 

Active Voice. 
I told him that the battle was over. 

Passive Voice. 
He was told that the battle zvas over. (Retained ob- 
ject.) 

160. INFINITIVE CLAUSES. 

An Infinitive Clause consists of an infinitive with 
subject objective. 

Infinitive Clauses are used as the objects of verbs of 
wishing, commanding, believing, declaring, etc. 
Examples : He commanded them to follozv. 

The expression, "them to follow," is 
the object of the verb commanded. 
"Them" is the subject of the infinitive, 
"to follow," and is in the objective 
case. 
I advised her to go. 
They believe him to be true. 
Replace Each Infinitive Clause by a "that"-clause 
and explain the change. 

Rule : The subject of an infinitive is in the objec- 
tive, (accusative) case. The predicate pronoun after 
the verb, to be, takes the accusative case to agree with 
the subject of the infinitive. 

Examples: We thought it to be him. 

They knew the officer to be hint. 
In each of the following sentences, explain the use of 
"who" and "whom" : 



100 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

A girl whom I thought to be worthy has failed me. 
A girl zvho, I thought, was worthy, has failed me. 
The man zvhom I believed to be him has not come. 
The man who, I believed, was he, has not ap- 
peared. 

161. An infinitive clause as the object of a preposition. 
I called for him to come. 

162. An infinitive clause may be used as subject, as 
predicate nominative. 

For us to interfere would be unreasonable. (Sub- 
ject.) 

The order was for the men to hasten their march. 
(Predicate nominative.) 

163. KINDS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 
(1) Clauses of Time or Place. 

Examples : The hour when they arrived was nearly 

mid-night. 
The farm where we were sent is very 

beautiful. 
The trench from which zve escaped was 

taken by the enemy. 
The moment before you came we were 

singing. 
I will go where they send me. 
They shall go when they are sent. 
You may play while I sew. 
The old well remains where they once 

fought. 



Clauses 101 

Explain the clauses in the above sentences and tell 
whether they are Adjective or Adverbial. Give the 
reasons for your answer. 

Tell also by what they are introduced and what they 
modify. 

164. (2) Causal and Concessive clauses. 
Causal clauses are dependent clauses of explana- 
tion. They may be introduced by the subordinate con- 
junctions because, since, as, sometimes that. 

Examples : He is crying because he hurt his knee. 
As it looks like rain, we shall not go. 
Since you cannot walk, you must drive 

every day. 
We were so happy that he could be with 
us. 
Tell whether the above clauses are adjective or ad- 
verbial and why. 

Concessive clauses are clauses (dependent) intro- 
duced by the subordinate conjunctions though, although, 
even though or even if. 

Examples: Though they sent the men to war, they 
did not fight. 
Although we trust them, we do not de- 
sire their co-operation. 
Rule: The subjunctive is used after though, 
although, etc., to express an admission or concession, 
not as a fact, but as a supposition. 

Examples: Though she were here, I should not 
tell her. 
Even if I were prepared, I should not 
go- 



102 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

When the concession is an admitted fact the indica- 
tive is used. 

Examples: Although this is June, the weather is 
cold. 
Even if I am weak, I know that I am 
improving. 

165. (3) Purpose clauses introduced by the subordi- 
nate conjunction that (so that, in order that, etc.). 

We sent out the men so that they might make a 

search. 
I will telegraph to-night that you may hear the 

news. 
He died that we might live. 

166. (4) Result clauses may be introduced by so that, 
or by that. 

They were so pleased with his discovery that they 

offered him a big sum. 
He has improved so much that he can move his 

arm. 
We found them all well, so that every one zvill 

be happy. 

167. Purpose and result clauses may be either ad- 
verbial or substantive clauses. 

Examples: I propose that we go to-day. (Object.) 
My proposition is that zee go to-day. 

(Pred. Norn.) 
The outcome was that he was exoner- 
ated. [Pred. Norn.) 
It had this result, that the general spirit 
was more pleasing. (Ap positive.) 



Clauses 103 

In the above sentences, tell which clauses are adverb- 
ial and which substantive. 

168. Purpose may be expressed by an infinitive 
clause. 

Examples : The ship signaled us to help them. 
We intended them to bring a friend. 
How are these infinitive clauses of purpose used? 

169. (5) Conditional clauses may be introduced by 
if, or, by provided that, supposing, or on condition that, 
etc. 

A conditional sentence consists of two parts : the 
subordinate adverbial clause and the conclusion which 
may be declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclama- 
tory. 

Examples: // you go to the city, you will see the 
parade. (Declarative) 
If zve travel at night, when shall we 

arrive? (Interrogative) 
Take this, if you choose. (Imperative) 
How surprised they will be, if zve arrive 
to-night! (Exclamatory) 

170. KINDS OF CONDITIONS. 

Conditional complex sentences are divided as follows : 

Present. 
Neutral — Contrary to fact. 

Past. 
Neutral — Contrary to fact. 

Future. 
More vivid — Less vivid. 

171. A condition is neutral when it implies nothing 
as to the truth or falsity of the supposed case. 



104 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

A condition is contrary to fact when it implies 
that the supposed case is not or was not true. 

Examples : If the ship is in safely, many hearts are 

relieved. (Nothing implied, neutral.) 

If the ship were in safely, many hearts 

would be relieved. (Supposed case is 

not a fact, contrary to fact.) 

Rule: In a neutral present condition, the present 

indicative is used in the if-clause; in a neutral past 

condition, the Imperfect, Perfect or Pluperfect may 

be used. 

Examples: If this is the town of Adams, it is pretty. 
If this is the town of Adams, you have 

lived in a pretty place. 
If this is the town of Adams, you will 
have a pretty place to live in. 
The sentences above are examples of present 

NEUTRAL. 

Past Neutral. 

If that was the town of Adams, it was pretty. 

If that was the the town of Adams, why did you not 
like it? 

If that ivas the town of Adams, stay there forever. 

If they have sent us word, they have kept their prom- 
ise. 

If they have sent us word, shall you be relieved? 

If they had sent us word, they must have worried. 

Note. — It will be noted in the above sentences that, 
the conclusion is in any form that makes the proper 
sense. 



Clauses 105 

172. CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT. 

In conditions contrary to fact, the Imperfect sub- 
junctive is used in the if -clause to indicate present 
time ; the Pluperfect to indicate past time. 

Examples : If the news were true, we should not 
fear. 
If my father were here now, I should be 

so happy. 
If it were not raining, we should go to 

town. 
If she were I, would she do the same? 
If the news had been true, we should not 

have feared. 
If they had sent us word, we should 

have heard before this. 
If I had departed earlier, I might have 
been sorry. 

173. Future Conditions ; more vivid, less vivid. 

A future condition more vivid implies nothing as 
to the probability or improbability of the supposed case. 
The present indicative is common in the if-clause 
and the future in the conclusion. 

Examples : If it is pleasant to-morrow, I shall join 
you. 
If he goes to College, he will profit by 
the higher learning. 
(The present subjunctive is sometimes used in sen- 
tences such as, — If it be pleasant to-morrow, I etc., but 
it implies greater doubt. 

A future condition less vivid implies considerable 
doubt. It is used with should or would in both clauses. 



106 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Examples: If it should be pleasant to-morrow, I 
should join you. 
If he should go to college, he would 
make good. 
In each of these two sentences, in the if-clauses, the 
following expressions may be used: If it were to be 
pleasant, etc., or, if it proved pleasant, and, if he were 
to go to college, or, if he went to college. 

174. (6) CLAUSES OF COMPARISON. 
Clauses of comparison are introduced by as if, and, 

the subordinate conjunctions as and tlian. 
The subjunctive is used after "as if." 
Examples: She looks as if she zvere tired. 
He walked as if he were lame. 
I spoke as if I had been the president. 
Henry is as old as I. (am) 
I am as tall as my son. (is) 
He is younger than his sister, (is) 
I trust him more than her. (I do) 
Give the reasons for the case of each of the pronouns 
used in the following sentences : 
We are happier than they. 
She is as handsome as he. 
I am as tired as you. 
They will write to her as often as me. 
I shall see you sooner than them. 

175. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

A Direct Quotation consists of the repetition of a 
remark or thought in its original form. 



Clauses 107 



Examples: He wrote, "I am having a fine time." 

"There is a light in the distance," they 

cried. 
"You see," she said, "this is my only 

opportunity." 
"Hereafter," I said, "you must come 
earlier." 
In each of the above sentences, notice that the exact 
words of the speaker are repeated. 

176. (7) An Indirect Quotation consists of the repe- 
tition of a speech or thought with a slight change in its 
original form. 

An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordi- 
nate clause which depends upon verbs of knowing, think- 
ing, telling, saying or perceiving, and, is introduced by the 
subordinate conjunction, that." 
Examples: He wrote that he was having a fine time. 
They called out that there was a light in 

the distance. 
She said that she saw this zvas her only 

opportunity. 
I said that hereafter you must come 
earlier. 
Clauses used as above are in the "indirect discourse." 
Remarks or thoughts repeated in their original form 
are in the "direct discourse." 

177. Statements in indirect discourse are used as sub- 
stantive clauses and may have the following construc- 
tions : 

(1) Subject, (2) Object of verbs of thinking, know- 



108 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

ing, telling, etc., (3) Predicate nominative, (4) Apposi- 
tive. 

(1) That there was a light ahead was reported by the 

captain. 

(2) She said that this was her only opportunity. 

(3) The report was that there zvas a light ahead. 

(4) The report, that there zvas a light ahead, was re- 

ceived with joy. 
"That" may sometimes be omitted, as, — I said I was 
tired. He wrote he was having a fine time, etc. 

178. Tense in Direct and Indirect Discourse. 
Direct. I am having a fine time. 
Indirect. He wrote that he was having a fine time. 
Direct. He has arrived. 
Indirect. He said that he had arrived. 
Direct. Water is a noun. 
Indirect. I explained that water is a noun. (A truth) 

Notice the change in tense in the above sentences and 
tell what they are. 

Rule: Whatever auxiliary (shall, will) is used in the 
direct discourse should be retained in the indirect dis- 
course with a change of tense where necessary. 

Examples: He writes, "I shall enlist." 

He writes that he shall enlist. 

He said, "I shall enlist." 

He said that he should enlist. 

Notice that this rule holds true only for the folloiving 
change : When the first person with shall or should in 
direct discourse becomes the second or third person in 
indirect discourse. 



Clauses 109 



You replied, "I shall enlist." 

You replied that you should enlist. 

179. (8) Direct and Indirect Questions. 

A question expressed in the actual words of the 
speaker is called a direct question. 

An indirect question consists of the repetition of a 
question with a change in form of a subordinate clause. 
Examples: He asked, "Are you going away? 
(Direct) 
He asked if I were going away. (In- 
direct) 
"What shall I do?" (Direct) 
She asked what she should do. (Indirect) 
"Which road shall I take?" (Direct) 
The man wondered which road he 
should take. (Indirect) 
Indirect questions depend upon verbs of asking, think- 
ing, doubting, etc. 

Direct and indirect questions may be introduced by 
(1) interrogative pronouns or adjectives, (2) by inter- 
rogative adverbs. 

Indirect questions are also introduced by the subordi- 
nate conjunctions if and whether. 
For the use of tenses, see 178. 

180. Indirect Questions are used as substantive clauses. 

These may be (1) subject, (2) object of a verb of ask- 
ing, etc., (3) predicate nominative, (4) ap positive, (5) 
object of a preposition. 

Where zve should go was the greatest question. (1) 

We asked what zve should do. (2) 

The question was what zve should do. (3) 



110 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

The question what we should do was hard to de- 
cide. (4) 

He was in doubt as to where he should go. (5) 
He was doubtful where he should go. (Adverbial 
clause.) Why? 

181. An indirect question may be introduced by an 
interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infini- 
tive. 

Examples: The question is where to go. (Where 
shall we go?) 
Tell me when to start. (When shall I 

start?) 
I was in doubt how to start. 
Tell how each of these indirect questions is used. 

182. After // or whether, the subjunctive is some- 
times used in indirect questions. 

I am uncertain if that be wise. 

We wondered whether the suggestion were good. 

I doubt if she be loyal. 

183. In using shall or should, will or would in indirect 
questions we retain the same auxiliary that is used in 
direct questions, with a single exception. 

Examples: Will Arthur go to war? 

Bob asked my father if I should go to 
war. 
When the third person of the direct becomes the first 
person of the indirect, the change occurs. 



Phrases 111 



CHAPTER IX. 
Phrases. 

184. A Phrase is a group of words not containing a 
complete thought. A Phrase does not, therefore, have 
a subject or predicate. 

Phrases may be classified as follows: (1) Noun 
phrases; (2) Verb-phrases; (3) Adjective phrases; 
(4) Adverbial phrases; (5) Participial phrases. 

( 1 ) A phrase used as a noun is called a Noun phrase. 
Examples: Cornell University. 

The Museum of Natural History. 

The League of Nations. 

The President of the United States. 

(2) A Verb-phrase is a group of words used as a 
verb. (16, 90) 

Examples : He is talking too fast. 

We have walked five miles. 

(3) An Adjective phrase is a group of words used 
as an adjective. 

Examples: This is a bar of gold. (Golden bar) 

We are in a country of hills and lakes. 

(Hilly and laky) 
The transport with the first division has 
arrived. (The first division transport) 

(4) An Adverbial phrase is a group of words used 
as an adverb. 

Examples : We walked over the ledge. 

Our friends arrived in the evening. 
There is a bar of gold on the tabic. 
Are they home from the front.' 



112 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

The game was played with great seal. 
My bungalow of pines has been rented 
for the summer. 
Name the phrases in the third and sixth sentences 
and tell how they are used. 

Phrases are said to modify words. 
Phrases used as the above, (3, 4,) are called preposi- 
tional phrases. 

(5) Participial phrases. 

As a participle resembles an adjective (111), and 
modifies a substantive, its construction, in the main, is 
like that of an adjective. 

The participle, with the words which modify it and 
other words which are attached to it, form the parti- 
cipial phrase. 

Examples : The girls, playing tennis, formed a pretty 
picture. 
I heard the waves dashing against the 

rocks. 
Telling me his history, he broke into 

tears. 
Having found a shady spot, we sat down 

to rest. 
Running with all his might, he made the 

goal in time. 
Having prepared his lesson with great 
care before he went to school, the boy 
gave a perfect recitation. 
We mused beside the laughing brook. 
She lives a wandering life. 



Special Constructions 113 

He has a broken arm. 

Hoping to reach land before dusk, they 

all kept up good courage. 
Working quietly, she accomplished a 
great deal. 

185. Participles may be modified by adverbs, adverbial 
phrases or adverbial clauses. 

A participle may take an object. 

A participle may be used as an adjective. 

Rule : A participle must have a noun or substantive 
to modify. 

Examples : Missing the train, a general disorder oc- 
curred. (Correct this sentence.) 

EXERCISE: Explain the participles in the phrases 
above and parse each word. 

186. RULE. A Singular verb should be used after 
prepositional phrases of the following order: 

A line of cadets was formed in the field. 

One of the girls is here. 

The price of these cars is high. 

CHAPTER X. 

Special Constructions. 

187. Should and Would in Subordinate Clauses. 

In subordinate clauses of purpose and in anticipa- 
tory clauses, shall and should are used in all three 
persons. 

Examples: I was determined that she should finish 
her work. 



114 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Every effort was made that he should 

be comfortable. 
We were careful that they should sing 

well. 
She tried her best that you should have 

a fair deal. 
They postponed the meeting until he 

should arrive. 
We trotted our horses as fast as we 
could to see the boys before they 
should leave. 
I will try to aid you before the limited 
time shall pass. 
188. In conditional and concessive clauses denoting 
future time doubtfully expressed, shall and should 
are used in all three persons. 

Examples: The girls would be tired if they should 
row the boat all the way. 
If he should go now, he would not find 

them. 
What would result if they should not go? 
Though she should repent, many would 

still dislike her. 
Though Bob should not pass his exam- 
ination, I should not worry about 
him. 
Note the use of "will" and "would" to denote desire 
or consent. 

I will do my part if they will do theirs. 
Failure is impossible, if I will only make 
a greater effort. 



Special Constructions 115 

If you would help him, they would ap- 
preciate your interest very much. 
Whoever will tell us the secret, will re- 
ceive a big reward. 
"Will" or "would" are used when the concession is a 
fact. This rule applies only to the second and third per- 
sons. 

Though you will find the problem diffi- 
cult, you can do it. 
Though she will be there, you will not 

see her. 
Though the car will run, we shall walk. 

189. THE SUBJUNCTIVE after statements of voli- 
tion. 

We resolve that the meeting be held. 

I insist that he go. 

The will provides that the children each be given 

a bountiful share. 
I asked especially that she come home to-day. 
We suggest that they take the same boat as we. 

190. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS in the sentence. 
An independent element is a zvord or group of 

words in a sentence that has no grammatical connection. 
Examples: O my, I wish I were in the hills! 
Ah! if we had only gone sooner! 
Goodness ! I think our ship is sinking ! 
Pshaw ! We forgot our glasses ! 
I hope I have not detained you, ladies! 
An independent element may be a parenthetical expres- 
sion which belongs neither to subject nor to predicate. 



116 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Examples: In fact, I prefer this one. 

We shall be very happy, indeed, to join 

you. 
There is another road, to be sure. 
We are unharmed, at all events. 
The price is, / must admit, very high. 
He is at home in the evening, as a rule. 

191. There are many words in English which have 
several constructions. 
Examples: I received an inspiration from above. 

(Noun) 
The porch is three feet above the ground. 

(Preposition) 
My eyes will look above. (Adverb) 
She is all in all to me. (Both cases, 

Noun) 
All are away. (Pronoun) 
All young men have gone. (Adjective) 
They are all prepared. (Adverb) 
I asked such questions as were practical. 

(Pronoun) 
She did not speak as eagerly. (Adverb) 
They made up as squaws. (Appositive 

Connective) 
As for me, do not worry. (Preposition 

group) 
He walked along as if in a quandary. 

(Conjunction group) 
As the ship neared the dock, the crowd 

cheered. (Conjunction, Conjunctive 

adverb, Relative adverb) 



Special Constructions 117 

As the car is coming, we must go. 

(Subordinate conjunction) 
Life is but thought. (Adjective) 
There is no man but speaks some 

tongue. (Pronoun) 
He went on his way but he never came 

back. (Conjunction) 
There is but dancing here to-night. 

(Preposition) 
I could but think of him. (Adverb) 
That was but a sweet dream. (Adjective 

group) 

192. EXERCISE: 

Use "both" as (1) Pronoun, (2) Adjective, (3) Con- 
junction. 

Use "fast" as (1) Noun, (2) Adjective, (3) Adverb, 
(4) Verb. 

Use "for" as (1) Preposition, (2) Conjunction. 

Use "like" as (1) Noun, (2) Adjective, (3) Adverb, 
(4) Verb. 

Use "more" as (1) Noun, (2) Adjective, (3) Adverb. 

Use "near" as (1) Adjective, (2) Adverb, (3) Verb. 

Use "so" as (1) Noun, (2) Adjective, (3) Adverb. 

Use "the" as (1) Adjective, (2) Adverb. 

193. VERBAL NOUN and PARTICIPLE. 
Do you enjoy his playing for you? 

Do you enjoy him playing for you? 

In the first sentence, the verbal noun is in the accusa- 
tive case and is modified by the possessive "his"; in the 
second sentence, the participle is used as an adjective 



118 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

and modifies the pronoun, "him," which is in the accusa- 
tive case. In the first sentence, the person is emphasized : 
in the second, the act is emphasized. 

Either construction is considered good form. 

CHAPTER XL 
Analysis. 

194. Analysis comes from two Greek words which 
mean "breaking up." Thus to analyze a sentence, we 
break it up into its constituent parts. 

Syntax comes from two Greek words which mean 
"to-gether" and "arrangement." Syntax, therefore, 
deals with the relation and arrangement of words. 
To give the syntax of a word is to give its construction. 

To analyse a simple sentence, we divide it into the 
complete subject and the complete predicate. Then 
we give the simple subject and simple predicate, the 
subject with its modifiers and the predicate with its modi- 
fiers and complement (if there is any). 

If the subject or the predicate is compound, we tell 
all subjects and predicates that are joined. 

To analyse a compound sentence, we first divide it 
into its co-ordinate clauses; then analyze each clause 
by itself. 

To analyze a complex sentence, we first divide it into 
the main clause and the subordinate clause. 

To analyze a compound complex sentence, we first di- 
vide it into the independent clauses, and then analyze 
each of these separately, i. e., as if they were sen- 
tences by themselves. 



Analysis 119 



195. The following extracts are taken from "AESOP'S 
FABLES." 

Analyze each of the sentences; parse the italicized 
words ; give the syntax of these words. 

(1) The Lion and the Mouse. 

A Lion zvas sleeping in his lair, when a Mouse, not 
knowing zvhere he zvas going, ran over the mighty beast's 
nose, and azvakened him. The Lion clapped his paw 
upon the frightened little creature, and was about to 
make an end of him in a moment, when the Mouse, 
in 'pitiable tone, besought him to spare one who had 
so unconsciously offended, and not stain his honorable 
paws with so insignificant a prey. The Lion, smiling 
at his little prisoner's fright, generously let him go. 
Nozv it happened no long time after, that the Lion, 
while ranging the woods for his prey, fell into the toils 
of the hunters; and finding himself entangled with- 
out hope of escape, set up a roar that filled the whole 
forest with its echo. The Mouse, recognising the 
voice of his former preserver, ran to the spot, and 
without more ado set to work to nibble the knot in the 
cord that bound the Lion, and in a short time set the 
noble beast at liberty; thus convincing him that kind- 
ness is seldom thrown azvay, and that there is no crea<- 
ture so much belozv another but that he may have it 
in his power to return a good office. 

196. (2) The Wolf and the Lamb. 

As a Wolf was lapping at the head of a running 
brook, he spied a stray Lamb paddling, at some dis- 
tance, dozvn the stream. Having made up his mi>id 
to seise her, he bethought himself how he might jus- 



120 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

tify his violence. "Villain," said he, running up to 
her, "how dare you muddle the zvater that I am drink- 
ing?" "Indeed," said the Lamb humbly, "I do not see\ 
how I can disturb the Water, since it runs from you 
to me, not from me to you." "Be that as it may," 
replied the Wolf, "it was but a year ago that you 
called me many ill names." "Oh, Sir," said the Lamb, 
trembling, "a year ago I was not born." "Well," re- 
plied the Wolf, "if it was not you, it was your father, 
and that is all the same; but it is no use trying to 
argue me out of my supper"; — and without another 
word he fell upon the poor helpless Lamb and tore 1 
her to pieces. 

A tyrant never wants a plea. And they have little 
chance of resisting the injustice of the powerful zvhose 
only weapons are innocence and reason. 

(3) The Fox and the Lion. 

A fox who had never seen a Lion, when by chance 
he met him for the first time, was so terrified that he 
almost died of fright. When he met him the second 
time, he was still afraid, but managed to disguise his 
fear. When he saiv him the third time, he was so 
much emboldened that he went up to him and asked 
him how he did. 

Familiarity breeds contempt. 

198. (4) The Hare and the Tortoise. 

A Hare jeered at a Tortoise for the slowness of his 
pace. But he laughed and said that he would run 
against her and beat her any day she would name. "Come 
on," said the Hare, "you shall soon see zvhat my feet are- 
made of." So it was agreed that they should start at 
once. The Tortoise went off jogging along, without a 



Analysis 121 



moment's stopping, at his usual steady pace. The Hare, 
treating the whole matter very lightly, said she would 
first take a little nap, and that she would soon overtake 
the Tortoise. Meanwhile the Tortoise plodded on, and 
the Hare oversleeping herself, arrived at the goal, only 
to see that the Tortoise had got in before her. 

Slow and steady wins the race. 

199. (5) The Fox Without a Tail. 

A Fox being caught in a trap, was glad to compound 
for his neck by leaving his tail behind him; but upon 
coming abroad into the world, he began to be so sensible 
of the disgrace such a defect would bring upon him, that 
he almost wished he had died rather than come away 
without it. However, resolving to make the best of a 
bad matter, he called a meeting of the re.y£ of the Foxes, 
and proposed //za£ all should follow his example. "You 
have no notion," said he, "of the ease and comfort with 
which I now move about; I cow/d w£z/<?r have believed 
it if I had not tried it myself ; but, really, when one 
comes to reason upon it, a tail is such an ugly, incon- 
venient, unnecessary appendage, that the only zvonder is 
that, as Foxes, we could have put up with it so long. I 
propose, therefore, my worthy brethren, that you all 
profit by the experience that I am most willing to afford 
you, and that all Foxes from this day forward cut off 
their tails." Upon this one of the oldest stepped for- 
ward, and said, "I rather think, my friend, that you 
would not have advised us to part with our tails, if there 
were any chance of recovering your ozvn." 

200. (6) The Bull and the Goat. 

A Bull being pursued by a Lion, fled into a cave xvhere 
a zvild goat had taken up his abode. The Goat upon 



122 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

this began molesting him and butting at him with his 
horns. "Don't suppose/' said the Bull, "if I suffer 
this now, that it is you I am afraid of. Let the Lion 
be once out of sight, and / will soon shozv you the dif- 
ference between a Bull and a Goat." 

Mean people take advantage of their neighbor's diffi- 
culties to annoy them; but the time w/7/ cow? when they 
w/7/ repent them of f/i^/r insolence. 

201. (7) The Wolf and the Horse. 

As a Wolf was roaming over a farm, he came to a 
/?e/d of oats, but not &£m# afr/? to eat them, he left Mem 
and went his way. Presently meeting with a Horse, he 
bade him come with him into the field; "For," says he, 
"I have found some capital oats; and I have not tasted 
one, but have kept them all for you, for the very sound 
of your teeth is music to my ear." But the Horse re- 
plied : "A pretty fellow, if wolves zvere able to eat oats, 
I suspect you would not have preferred your ears to your 
appetite." 

Little thanks are due to him who only gives azvay 
what is of no use to himself. 

202. The following extracts are taken from Charles 
Dudley Warner's "In the Wilderness." This book is 
"prescribed by the Regents of the University of the State 
of New York for the examination for the preliminary 
certificate in English." 

Lost in the Woods. 

It ought to be said, by zvay of explanation, that my 

being lost in the woods was not premeditated. Nothing 

could have been more informal. This apology can be 

necessary only to those who are familiar with the 



Analysis 123 



Adirondack literature. Any person not familiar with 
it would see the absurdity of one going to the Northern 
Wilderness with the deliberate purpose of writing about 
himself as a lost man. It may be true that a book about 
this wild track would not be recognised as complete with- 
out a lost-man story in it; since it is almost as easy for 
a stranger to get lost in the Adirondacks as it is in 
Boston. I merely desire to say that my unimportant ad- 
venture is not narrated in answer to the popular demand, 
and I do not wish to be held responsible for its varia- 
tion from the typical character of such experiences. 
We had been in camp a week, on the Upper Ausable 
Lake. This is a gem-emerald or turquoise as the /«?/&/ 
changes it — je£ in the virgin forest. It is not a large 
body of water, is irregular in form, and about a mile 
and a Aa// in length; but in the sweep of its zvooded 
shores, and the lovely contour of the lofty mountains 
that guard it, the lake is probably the most charming in 
America. Why the young ladies and gentlemen who 
camp there occasionally vex the days and nights with 
hooting, and singing sentimental songs, is a mystery even 
to the laughing loon. 

203. Having no doubt that I was within /m// a mtfc, 
perhaps within a /ew rods, of the house above the ew- 
trance of the gorge, and that, in any event, I should 
fall into the cart-path in a few minutes, I struck boldly 
into the forest, congratulating myself on having escaped 
out of the nWr. 6>) sure was / of ///y whereabouts, that 
I did not note the 6c>id of the river, nor look at my 
compass. The one trout in my basket was no burden, 
and I stepped liglitly out. 



124 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

204. It began to be a question whether I could hold 
out to walk all night; for I must travel, or perish. And 
nozv I imagined that a spectre was walking by my side. 
This was Famine. To be sure, I had only recently eaten 
a hearty luncheon; but the pangs of hunger got hold 
on me when I thought that I should have no supper, no 
breakfast; and, as the procession of unattainable meals 
stretched before me, I grew hungrier and hungrier. I 
could feel that I was becoming gaunt, and wasting away; 
already I seemed to be emaciated. It is astonishing how 
speedily a jocund, well-conditioned human being can be 
transformed into a spectacle of poverty and want. 

205. A Fight with a Trout. 

Trout-fishing in the Adirondacks would be a more 
attractive pastime than it is, but for the popular notion 
of its danger. The trout is a retiring and harmless ani- 
mal, except when he is aroused, and forced into a com- 
bat; and //i£w his agility, fierceness, and vindictiveness 
become apparent. No one zvho has studied the excellent 
pictures representing men in an open boat, exposed to 
the assaults of long, enraged trout flying at them through 
the open air with open mouth, ever ventures with his 
rod upon the lonely lakes of the forest without a certain 
terror, or #z^r r^acfo of the exploits of daring fishermen 
without a feeling of admiration for //*r/r heroism. Most 
of their adventures are thrilling, and a// of //tern are, m 
narration, more or /<?.w unjust to the trout: in fact, the 
object of them seems to be to exhibit at the expense of 
the frowf, the shrewdness, the .sfe///, and the muscular 
power of the sportsman. My own simple ^0^3; has /<?w 
of ///«£ recommendations. 



Analysis 12; 



206. We had built our bark camp one summer, and 
were staying on one of the popular lakes of the Saranac 
region. It zvould be a very pretty region if it zvere not 
so flat, if the margins of the lakes had not been flooded 
by dams at the outlets, — which have killed the trees, and 
left a rim of ghastly deadwood like the swamps of the 
underworld pictured by Dore's bizarre pencil, — and if 
the pianos at the hotels were in tune. 

207. Coming to the surface, he made straight for the 
&oa£ faster than I cow/d r^^Z in, and evidently with ftcy- 
fa7e intentions. "Look out for /Mm/ J cried Luke as he 
came flying in the a/r. I evaded him by dropping flat 
in the bottom of the boat ; and, w/i#w I picked my traps 
up, he ww spinning across the Zafo as if he /iad a new 
idea; but the Zfwe was still fast. He did not run far. 
I gave /«'m the butt again, a £/zm<7 he seemed to hate, 
even as a gift. In a moment, the evil-minded fish, /as/i- 
mg the water in his ragr^, was coming back again, mak- 
ing straight for the boat as before. Luke, who was used 
to £/i£S£ encounters, having read of £/i£W in the writings 
of travellers /z£ had accompanied, raised his paddle in 
self-defence. The trout left the water about ten /cr£ 
from the boat, and came directly toward me with fiery 
eyes, his speckled sides flashing like a meteor. 

208. A Wilderness Romance. 

There were strange reports about this cave when the 
old guide was a boy, and wen f/jrn ifcs very exist end- 
had become legendary. Nobody knew exactly where it 
was, but there was no doubt that it had been inhabited. 
Hunters in the forests south of Dix had seen a light late 



126 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

at night twinkling through the trees high up the moun- 
tain, and now and then a ruddy glare as from the flar- 
ing-np of a furnace. Settlers were /ew in the wilder- 
ness then, and all the inhabitants were we// known. If 
the cave was inhabited, it must be by strangers, and by 
wew w/io had so7we secret purpose in seeking this seclu- 
sion and eluding observation. If suspicious characters 
zvere seen about Por£ Henry, or // any jwc/t landed from 
the steamers on the shore of La£e Champlain, it was iwt- 
possible to identify them with £/ie.ye invaders who were 
never seen. Their not being seen did not, however, pre- 
vent the growth of the belief in //je/> existence. Little 
indications and rumors, each trivial in itself, became a 
mews of testimony that could not be disposed 0/ because 
of ifa z>£ry indefiniteness, but which appealed strongly to 
man's noblest faculty, his imagination, or credulity. 

209. Nobody would, I suppose, doubt this story, if the 
cave were in the mountains of Hispaniola or in the 
Florida Keys. But a Spaniard in the Adirondacks does 
seem misplaced. Well, there zuould be no romance about 
i< */ he were not misplaced. The Spaniard, anywhere 
out of Spain, has always been misplaced. What could 
drazv him to //ns /o<7#y and remote region? There are 
/wo substances that zvill draw a Spaniard from a>;v rfiy- 
/ance as certainly as sugar w/7/ oYaw zvasps, — ao/a* and 
silver. Does the reader begin to see light f There was 
a rumor that silver existed in £/iese mountains. I do 
not know where the rumor came from, but it is neces- 
sary to account for the Spaniards in the caz/e. 

Note. — After analyzing cor/t sentence, and parsing the italicized words 
in these exercises, the student may, for further practice, parse every word 
as rapidly as possible. 



Foreword 127 



APPENDIX. 

Foreword. 

The Object and Advantage of Studying Latin. 

Latin was the language spoken in ancient times by 
the people who inhabited Western Europe and all parts 
of Latium whose important city was Rome. The Latini, 
as these people were called, and their successors, the 
Romans, extended their power until they possessed all 
of Italy and of what was then the civilized world. The 
Romans were the most powerful nation on earth for six 
hundred years ; we read of them in History for twelve 
centuries. 

France, Spain, Portugal and Italy to-day base their 
languages upon Latin. It is for this reason that students 
find these subjects very simple when they know a little 
Latin. More than fifty per cent of English words are 
derivatives from Latin and a knowledge of Latin is 
an aid in using good English. Latin trains the mind; 
develops the power of observation; adds to general 
information. 

Professional men know Latin because they find it a 
necessity in their business. College seals, mottoes and 
inscriptions are usually in Latin and it would do credit 
to every boy and girl to be able to read them. An inter- 
est in this momentous subject will never be regretted 



128 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



PRELUDE I. 

Derivatives. 

In the following "preludes," a few of the English 
derivatives will be given to illustrate how we almost 
"speak" Latin a good part of the time. Every noun, in 
Latin, belongs to a certain declension. There are five 
declensions and seven cases. As a review, define de- 
clension and case. (35) 

First declension nouns end in "a." 



EXERCISE: 


Use each 


English 


derivative in a se 


tence. 






English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


agricola. 


farmer. 




agriculture. 


fabula. 


story. 




fable. 


nauta. 


sailor. 




nautical. 


insula. 


island. 




insular. 


porta. 


door. 




port, portal. 


silva. 


forest. 




silvan. 


filia. 


daughter 




filial. 


causa. 


reason. 




cause. 


victoria. 


victory. 




victory. 


patria. 


country. 




patriotic. 


aqua. 


water. 




aquatic. 


via. 


road. 




viaduct. 





Derivatives 


129 






English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


terra. 


land. 


territory. 


lingtia. 


tongue, language. 


linguist. 


littera. 


letter of the 






alphabet. 


literature. 


memoria. 


memory. 


memorial. 


serva. 


female slave. 


servant. 


vigilia. 


watch. 


vigil. 


epistula. 


letter. 


epistle. 


fortuna. 


fortune. 


fortunate. 


natura. 


nature. 


natural. 


poeta. 


poet. 


poetical. 


femina. 


woman. 


feminine. 


pecunia. 


money. 


pecuniary. 


praeda. 


booty, plunder. 


predatory. 


domina. 


mistress 






(of slaves). 


dominant. 


hora. 


hour. 


horoscope. 


copia. 


plenty. 


copious. 


vita. 


life. 


vital. 


opera. 


work, activity. 


opera. 


hiberna. 


winter quarters. 


hibernate. 


ripa. 


bank. 


riparian. 


fuga. 


flight. 


refuge. 


diligentia. 


diligence. 


diligent. 


provincia. 


province. 


provincial. 


pugiia. 


fight. 


pugnacious. 


EXERCISE: 


Name other derivatives from these 


Latin words. 







130 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



DERIVATIVES, DECLENSION II. 
Second declension nouns end in its, am, er. (one in ir). 



Latin \Y 


ORD. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


amicus. 




friend. 


amicable. 


legatus. 




ambassador. 


legation. 


servus. 




male slave. 


servant. 


dominus. 




master. 


dominant. 


filius. 




son. 


filial. 


captivus. 




captive. 


captivate. 


inferus. 




inhabitant of the 








lower world. 


inferior. 


murus. 




wall. 


mural. 


numerus. 




number. 


numerous. 


superus. 




inhabitant of the 








upper world. 


superior. 


hortus. 




garden. 


horticulture. 


equus. 




horse. 


equine. 


tribunus. 




tribune. 


tribunal. 


car r us. 




car, wagon. 


car. 


latus. (adj.). 


wide, broad. 


latitude. 


oceanus. 




ocean. 


oceanic. 


socius. 




comrade. 


associate. 


inimicus: 


(adj.). 


unfriendly. 


inimical. 


proximus 


. (adj.) 


. nearest. 


proximity. 


legatus. 




lieutenant, 
ambassador. 


legation. 


captivus. 




captive. 


captivate. 


locus. 




place. 


location. 


modus. 




manner. 


mood. 


barbarus. 




barbarian. 


barbarous. 





Derivatives 


131 






English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


longus. (adj.). 


long, tall. 


long. 


magnus. (adj.). 


great, large. 


magnify. 


multus. (adj.). 


much, many. 


multiply. 


altus. (adj.). 


high. 
UM NOUNS. 


altitude. 


donum. 


gift. 


donate. 


signum. 


standard. 


signal. 


forum. 


forum. 


forum. 


imperatum. 


command. 


imperative. 


imperium. 


authority. 


imperious. 


monumentum. 


monument. 


monumental. 


votum. 


wish. 


vote. 


infinitum. 


boundless. 


infinite. 


negotium. 


business. 


negotiate. 


subsidium. 


aid. 


subsidiary. 


templum. 


temple. 


temple. 


tributum. 


tax. 


tribute. 


vestigium. 


trace. 


vestige. 


bellum. 


war. 


belligerent. 


praemium. 


reward. 


premium. 


scutum. 


shield. 


escutcheon. 


studium. 


zeal. 


study. 


periculum. 


danger. 


peril. 


imperium. 


command. 


imperial. 


factum. 


deed, act. 


fact. 


consilium. 


advice. 


counsel. 


aedificium. 


building. 


edifice. 


impedimentum. 


hindrance. 


impediment. 


signum. 


sign, signal. 


signify. 


initium. 


beginning. 


initial. 



132 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 





1R NOUNS. 


English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


vir. 


man. 

ER NOUNS. 


virile. 


ager. 


field. 


agrarian. 


puer. 


boy. 


puerile. 


liber. 


book. 


library. 


magister. 


teacher. 


magistrate. 


miser, (adj.). 


free. 


liberal. 


noster. 


our. 


nostrum. 


integer. 


whole, unimpaired. 


integer. 


Nouns of the 


third declension have 


various endings 
English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


arbor. 


tree. 


arbor. 


consul. 


consul. 


consul. 


explorator. 


scout. 


explore. 


imperator. 


general, 
commander-in- 
chief. 


imperative. 


soror. 


sister. 


sorority. 


victor. 


victor. 


victorious. 


timor. 


fear. 


timorous. 


f rater. 


brother. 


fraternity. 


mater. 


mother. 


maternity. 


pater. 


father. 


paternity. 


miles. 


soldier. 


military. 


caput. 


head. 


capital. 


corpus. 


body. 


corporal. 


pes. 


foot. 


pedal. 





Derivatives 


133 






English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


rex. 


king. 


regal. 


animal. 


animal. 


animal. 


hostis. 


enemy. 


hostile. 


ignis. 


fire. 


ignite. 


mare. 


sea. 


marine. 


nox. 


night. 


nocturnal. 


pars. 


part. 


partial. 


urbs. 


city. 


urban. 


civis. 


citizen. 


civic. 


navis. 


ship. 


navy. 


tempus. 


time. 


temporal. 


lux. 


light. 


lucid. 


princeps. 


principal, chief. 


principal. 


eques. 


horseman. 


equestrian. 


pedes. 


foot-soldier. 


pedestrian. 


lex. 


law. 


legal. 


nomen. 


name. 


nominate. 


vox. 


voice. 


vocal. 


mos. 


custom. 


moral. 


sol. 


sun. 


solar. 


latitude 


width. 


latitude. 


longitude 


length. 


longitude. 


senator. 


senator. 


senator. 


custos. 


guard. 


custodian. 


suspicio. 


suspicion. 


suspicious. 


natio. 


tribe. 


nation. 


rumor. 


report. 


rumor. 


dux. 


leader. 


conductor. 


lapis. 


stone. 


dilapidate. 


virtus. 


valor, courage. 


virtue. 



134 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 







English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


vulnus. 


wound. 


vulnerable. 


civis. 


citizen. 


civil. 


finis. 


end. 


finish. 


audax. 


bold. 


audacious. 


flumen. 


river. 


fluent. 


mercator. 


merchant. 


merchandise. 


pax. 


peace. 


pacify. 


tempestas. 


weather, storm. 


tempest. 


iter. 


way, journey. 


itinerary. 


Nouns of the 


fourth declension end 


in us; a few end 


in it. 




English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


cornu. 


horn. 

wing of an army. 


cornucopia. 


domus. 


house. 


domestic. 


manus. 


hand. 


manual. 


motus. 


revolt. 


commotion. 


portus. 


harbor. 


port. 


adventus. 


arrival. 


advent. 


aquaductus. 


aqueduct. 


aqueduct. 


conventus. 


assembly. 


convention. 


impetus. 


impetus, attack. 


impetus. 


senatus. 


senate. 


senate. 


strepitus. 


uproar. 


obstreperous. 


tumultus. 


disturbance. 


tumult. 


usus. 


use. 


usage. 


lacus. 


lake. 


lake. 


exercitus. 


army. 


exercise. 


manus. 


hand, band (of 
men). 


manufacture. 



Derivatives 



135 



Nouns of the fifth declension end in es. 



Latin Word. Meaning. 

dies. day. 

fides. faith. 

res. event, fact, thing. 

planities. plain. 

tres. (adj.). three. 

Note. — Very few derivatives are obtained from this 
declension. Give other derivatives for each declension 
where possible. Adjectives, in Latin, belong to certain 
declensions as well as nouns. 



English 
Derivative. 
diary, 
fidelity, 
reality, 
plane, 
trio. 



The following adjectives are 


from 


different deck 


sions. Only 


the 


most common ; 


ire given here. 


Adjective. 




Meaning. 




Derivative. 


pulcher. 




pretty. 




pulchritude. 


miser. 




unhappy. 




miserable. 


fidus. 




faithful. 




fidelity. 


liber. 




free. 




liberate. 


niger. 




black. 




negro. 


acer. 




sharp, active. 




accelerate. 


brevis. 




short. 




brevity. 


fortis. 




strong. 




fortitude. 


gravis. 




severe. 




grave. 


levis. 




light. 




levity. 


potens. 




powerful. 




potential. 


facilis. 




easy. 




facility. 


difncilis. 




difficult. 




difficulty. 


similis. 




like. 




similar. 


dissimilis. 




unlike. 




dissimilar. 


humilis. 




low. 




humility. 



136 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



Adjective. ' 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


senex. 


old. 


senior. 


celer. 


swift. 


celerity. 


qtiartus. 


fourth. 


quarter. 


medius. 


middle. 


medium. 


primus. 


first. 


primary. 


privatus. 


private. 


private. 


exterus. 


outward. 


exterior. 


validus. 


strong. 


valid. 


gratus. 


pleasing, welcome. 


gratitude. 


bonus. 


good, kind. 


bonus. 


secundus. 


second. 


secondary. 


angustus. 


narrow. 
PRELUDE II. 


anguish. 


English 


Derivatives From Latin Verbs. 






English 


Latin Verb. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


porto. 


to carry. 


portable. 


laudo. 


to praise. 


laud. 


amo. 


to love. 


amiable. 


narro. 


to tell. 


narrate. 


occupo. 


to occupy. 


occupy. 


pugno. 


to fight. 


pugnacious. 


voco. 


to call. 


vocal. 


vulnero. 


to wound. 


vulnerable. 


demonstro. 


to show. 


demonstrate. 


libero. 


to free. 


liberate. 


navigo. 


to sail. 


navigate. 


culpo. 


to blame. 


culpable. 



English Derivatives from Latin Verbs 137 









English 


Latin Word. 


Meaning. 


Derivative. 


scribo. 


to 


write. 


scripture. 


relinquo. 


to 


leave. 


relinquish. 


audio. 


to 


hear. 


audience. 


dico. 


to 


say. 


diction. 


facio. 


to 


make. 


factory. 


credo. 


to 


trust. 


credit. 


incendo. 


to 


set on fire. 


incendiary. 


traduco. 


to 


lead across. 


traduce. 


orno. 


to 


adorn. 


ornament. 


lego. 


to 


read. 


legible. 


peto. 


to 


ask. 


petition. 


canto. 


to 


sing. 


incantation. 


apropinquo. 


to 


approach, draw near. 


propinquity. 


nato. 


to 


swim. 


natatorium. 


laboro. 


to 


work. 


laboratory. 


convoco. 


to 


call to-gether. 


convoke. 


habeo. 


to 


have. 


habit. 


video. 


to 


see. 


provide. 


specto. 


to 


look at. 


spectator. 


expecto. 


to 


wait for. 


expect. 


delecto. 


to 


delight. 


delectable. 


doceo. 


to 


teach, show. 


docile. 


moneo. 


to 


advise, warn. 


admonition. 


terreo. 


to 


frighten. 


terror. 


probo. 


to 


approve. 


approbation. 


paro. 


to 


prepare. 


prepare. 


supero. 


to 


surpass, conquer. 


insuperable. 


anno. 


to 


arm. 


armor. 


compleo. 


to 


fill. 


complete. 


teneo. 


to 


hold. keep. 


tenant. 



138 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 







English 


Latin Word. Mean inc.. 


Derivative. 


adoro. 


to worship. 


adoration. 


duco. 


to lead. 


conduct. 


mitto. 


to send. 


remit. 


rego. 


to rule, manage. 


regent. 


apto. 


to fit to, adjust. 


adapt. 


confirmo. 


to strengthen, encourage. 


confirmation. 


postulo. 


to demand. 


postulate. 


solvo. 


to loosen, melt, pay. 


solve. 


volo. 


to fly. 


volatile. 


capio. 


to take. 


captive. 


dimitto. 


to send away. 


dismiss. 


fugio. 


to flee, run away. 


fugitive. 


doleo.. 


to grieve. 


doleful. 


servo. 


to save, protect. 


preserve. 


defendo. 


to defend. 


defense. 


contendo. 


to struggle. 


contend. 


vasto. 


to lay waste. 


devastate. 


vinco. 


to conquer. 


invincible. 


recipio. 


to receive, welcome. 


recipient. 


impedio. 


to hinder. 


impede. 


incite 


to incite, arouse. 


incite. 


pono. 


to put, place. 


postpone. 


privo. 


to keep from, deprive of. 


privation. 


prohibeo. 


to keep away from, restrain. 


prohibit. 


accipio. 


to receive. 


accept. 


quaero. 


to seek, ask. 


inquire. 


instruo. 


to draw up. marshal!. 


instruct. 


verto. 


to turn. 


convert. 


ago. 


to act, to do. 


agent. 


impero. 


to command, order. 


imperative. 



English Derivatives from Latin Verbs 139 



Latin Word. Meaning. 

debeo. to be obliged to. 

sentio. to know, perceive, feel. 

spero. to hope. 

occurro. to meet, run toward. 

volo. to be willing. 

persuadeo. to persuade. 

resisto. to oppose, resist. 

faveo. to favor. 

moveo. to move. 

reduco. to lead back. 

oro. to speak, plead. 

fero. to bear, bring. 

transeo. to go across, cross. 

permitto. to allow, suffer. 

exeo. to go out, go forth. 

tempero. to refrain, abstain from. 

pateo. to extend, spread, open. 

reverto. to turn back. 

moror. to hinder, delay. 

provideo. to foresee, take care. 

tempto. to try, attempt. 

reficio. to repair. 

intercipio. to cut off, intercept. intercept. 

oppono. to oppose. opposition. 

submitto. to send to the assistance of submit. 

Note. — In all these examples of derivatives, the pro- 
nunciation is left to the teacher. 

As a further exercise, give as many derivatives from 
the Latin words as possible. Write a sentence for each 
derivative. 



English 
Derivative. 
debit, 
sentiment, 
prosperous, 
occur, 
volition, 
persuasive, 
resistance, 
favor, 
motion, 
reduce, 
orator, 
transfer, 
transit, 
permission, 
exit. 

temperance, 
patent, 
revert, 
moratorium. 
provision, 
temptation, 
refectory. 



140 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



PRELUDE III. 
Latin Mottoes and Phrases. 



Latin. 
Quo vadis? 
Carpe diem. 
In hoc signo vinces. 
Cui bono? 
Ipse dixit. 
Labor omnia vincit. 
Mens sana in corpore sano. 
O tempora ! O mores ! 

Requiescat in pace. 
Semper idem. 
Veni, vidi, vici. 
Prosit. 

Tempus fugit. 
E pluribus unum. 
Ultimatum. 
In statu quo. 
Bona fide. 
Inter nos. 
Vox populi. 
Mirabile dictu. 
Lapsus linguae. 
Post mortem. 
Ante mortem. 
Ante bellum. 
Per annum. 
Per capita. 



Translation. 
Whither goest thou? 
Seize the opportunity. 
In this sign thou wilt conquer. 
What is the good ? 
He himself said it. 
Work conquers everything. 
A sound mind in a sound body. 
Oh the times! Oh the cus- 
toms ! 
Let him rest in peace. 
Always the same. 
I came, I saw, I conquered. 
To your health. 
Time flies. 
Out of many, one. 
Resolution. 
At a standstill. 
In good faith, (ingenuous). 
Between ourselves. 
The voice of the people. 
Wonderful to be said. 
A slip of the tongue. 
After death. 
Before death. 
Before the war. 
By the year. 
By the head, (per person) 



Latin Mottoes and Phrases 



141 



Latin. 
Ex tempore. 

Copia verborum. 

Exit. 

Aqua vitae. 

Deo volente. 

Deus vobiscum. 

Corpus Christi. 

Dramatis personae. 

Alias. 

Ne plus ultra. 

Non compos mentis. 

Pater noster. 

Pater patriae. 

Pax vobiscum. 

Sine qua non. 



Viva voce. 
Vice versa. 
Terra firma. 
Habeas Corpus. 
Alma Mater. 
Ad valorem. 
Ex officio. 
Experienta docet. 
Excelsior. 
Multum in parvo. 
Ars longa, vita brevis. 
Esse quam videri. 



Translation. 

On the spur of the moment. 
(Without reflection) 

Gift of the tongue. 

Retire from sight. 

Water of life. 

God willing. 

God be with you. 

The body of Christ. 

The characters of the play. 

Otherwise. 

Nothing beyond. 

Not of sound mind. 

Our Father. (Lord's prayer). 

Father of his country. 

Peace be with you. 

Without Which, nothing. 
(An indispensable condi- 
tion.) 

By word of mouth. 

The terms being reversed. 

Firm ground. 

Legal process. 

School, Academy, University. 

Priced. 

Official. 

Experience teaches. 

Onward and upward. 

Much in little. 

Art is long and time is fleeting. 

To be rather than to seem to 
be. 



142 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 



Latin. 
Lux et Veritas. 
Vita sine litteris mors est. 

Facta non verba. 
Verbum sat sapientia. 

Nil desperandum. 

In lumine tuo videbimus 

lumen. 
Dominus illuminatio mea. 

Veritas. Christo et Eccle- 
sia. Nov. Ang. 

Vi et armis. 
Ad astra. 
In nuce. 

Errare humanum est. 
Festina lente. 
Cum grano salis. 
Tempora mutantur. 
Dum spiro, spero. 

Post nubila Phoebus. 

Crescat scientia. 

Dulce et decorum est pro 

patria mori. 
Non est vivere sed valere 

vita. 
Qui non proficit. deficit. 



Translation. 
Light and truth. 
Life without letters (books) 

is death. 
Deeds not words. 
A word to the wise is suffi- 
cient. 
Never despair. 
In thy light shall we see light. 

(Seal of Columbia College) 
God is my light. 

(Oxford seal) 
Truth. Christ and the Church. 

New England. (Harvard 

seal) 
By force and arms. 
To the stars. 
In a nutshell. 
To err is human. 
Make haste slowly. 
With a grain of salt. 
Times are changed. 
While there is life, there is 

hope. 
Every cloud has a silver lining. 
May knowledge increase. 
Sweet and seemly it is to die 

for one's country. 
Not merely to exist, but to 

amount to something is life. 
Who does not advance, falls 

behind. 



Latin Mottoes and Phrases 



143 



Translation. 

The truth shall make you free. 

The end crowns the work. 

Method of working. 

From something done after- 
wards ; retrospective. 

From the origin, or com- 
mencement. 

For this purpose. 

At pleasure. 

To the letter ; minutely exact. 

In a word. 

To the life. 

Another self. 

A friend is another self. 

A foster child; the students 
of a college are said to be 
its foster children. 

A race course; a course of 
study at school or college. 

A veteran who has received 
his discharge. 

A general agent, servant or 
deputy. 

Let it be done. 

Fidelity and justice. 

Glory to God in the highest. 

In a state of existence. 

Distinguishing marks or 

badges of rank or honor. 

Note. — The pronunciation of these mottoes and 

phrases is again left to the teacher. The following are 

among the most common abbreviations from the Latin : 



Latin. 
Veritas vos liberabit. 
Finis coronat opus. 
Modus operandi. 
Ex post facto. 

Aborigine. 

Ad hoc. 
Ad libitum. 
Ad literam. 
Ad summam. 
Ad vivum. 
Alter ego. 
Alter ipse amicus. 
Alumnus. 



Curriculum. 

Emeritus. 

Factotum. 

Fiat. 

Fides et Justitia. 

Gloria in excelsis Deo. 

In esse. 

Insignia. 



144 Essentials of English Grammar Condensed 

Latin. Translation. 

A. D. — Anno Domini. In the Year of our Lord. 

Etc. — et caetera. And so forth. 

I. E.— id est. That is. 

P. S. — Post scriptum. After the writing. (An added 

word). 

Vs. — Versus. Against. 

Q. E. D. — Quod erat dem- Which was to be proved, 
onstrandum. 

EXERCISE: Write an article concerning a tennis 
tournament, or, a football game in which you use as many 
Latin phrases, mottoes and quotations as possible. 
Underline these Latin words and translate them from 
memory. 

Write a letter to some friend about any subject in 
which you are interested and repeat the same exercise. 



